VOLUME 6 • ISSUE 1

This Journal is Published by the IACBE

More information is available on the IACBE Website: https://iacbe.org/JABE

JABE 1

Journal for Advancing Business Education

VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1

This Journal is Published by the IACBE

©International Accreditation Council for Business Education

More Information is available on the IACBE Web Page:

https://iacbe.org/news/journal-for-advancing-business-education/

ISSN 2638-8065

JABE 2

International Accreditation Council for Business Education (IACBE)

11960 Quivira Road, Suite 300, Overland Park, Kansas 66213 USA

Journal for Advancing

Business Education

____________________________________________________________________________

Volume 6 / Issue 1 June 2024

____________________________________________________________________________

TABLE OF CONTENTS

3 About the Journal

4 Editorial Team

5 From the Editor

7 Designing a Persuasive University Website

Zahra Pourabedin & James Dovel

23 What is Missing from Management Education? Learning from the Stakeholders

Maureen L. Mackenzie-Ruppel

45 Transforming Future Business Leaders Through Experiential and Service Learning

Kellie L. Playter & Tammie L. Burkhart

58 GMs, Coaches and Players: Management Lessons from Sports

Ronald L. Moy, Ralph A. Terregrossa, & Sylvia D. Clark

77 Helping Students Understand Positioning, Competitive Advantage, and Key

Success Factors: An Experiential Exercise for Strategic Management Classes

Jeffrey A. Mello

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ABOUT:

The Journal for Advancing Business Education is a practitioner and scholarly journal that

publishes the best work in the field of business education to enhance teaching, achieve student

learning outcomes, and meet program goals. The Journal aligns with the IACBE mission of

promoting and supporting excellence in business education. All submissions are subject to a

double-blind peer review process. The Journal is an online journal and accessible on the IACBE

Web page. The Journal for Advancing Business Education is a biannual publication.

MISSION:

The mission of the Journal for Advancing Business Education is to publish best practices and

scholarship in business and business-related fields to improve business education and society.

DISCLAIMER:

Facts and opinions in articles published in the Journal for Advancing Business Education (JABE)

are solely the personal statements of respective authors and do not necessarily reflect the views

of the Journal, the editors, the editorial board or the International Accreditation Council for

Business Education (IACBE). Authors are responsible for all contents in their article(s) including

accuracy of the facts and statements, citation of resources, etc. JABE and its editors disclaim

any liability for violations of other parties’ rights, or any damage incurred as a consequence from

use or application of any of the contents of JABE. The editors consider in good faith that authors

have full permission to publish every part of the submitted material(s) including illustrations.

Sample Recommended Citation for Articles Featured in JABE:

APA Style

Fedor, J.A. (2019). Learning in a cohort: Adapting content to women’s learning styles. Journal for

Advancing Business Education, 1(1), 16-36.

JABE is accessible on the Scholastica Journal Web Page: https://jabe.scholasticahq.com/

Journal for Advancing Business Education

JABE 4

EDITORIAL TEAM

Managing Editor:

Dr. Christian Gilde, University of Montana Western

Associate Editors:

Dr. Janice Fedor, American International College

Dr. Laurie Yates, IACBE

Editorial Board:

Dr. Fredrick Chilson, Lewis-Clark State College

Dr. Janice Fedor, American International College

Dr. Christian Gilde, University of Montana Western

Dr. Anubha Singh, Alliance University

Dr. Laurie Yates, IACBE

JABE 5

FROM THE EDITOR

Dear Reader,

With advancements in artificial-intelligence applications, automation, and machine learning,

artificial intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the traditional business landscape and entire industries

in an unparalleled fashion. AI possess vast capabilities that can make automation more efficient,

optimize predictions, and reduce risk. Therefore, a recent Business Wire survey (2022) reports

that 91 percent of responding organizations are investing in AI activities.

A challenge that surfaced lately and that more and more instructors try to tackle is the

following: How to teach AI? More specifically, how to teach AI to a class of college students? In

this context, artificial intelligence is a machine that, kind of, thinks like a person. More general, AI

covers expert systems, machine learning, deep learning, generative AI, and artificial general

intelligence. All these elements combined create the AI that we encounter every day.

When perusing through different kinds of class-content that integrate AI in teaching,

various subject matters emerge. In the case of business and engineering, one can find courses

such as data science, programming, robotics, machine operations, signals and systems,

optimization and control, and language processing. AI strategy, ethics, and technology are other

natural outflows of these courses. Many of these courses have experiential projects and

simulations involving live organizations woven into their fabric and touch on topics, including

neural networks, AI and human work, algorithmic bias, and large language models.

Ultimately, to explain basic artificial intelligence to junior students, one should start with

emphasizing a thematic and social (big picture) approach rather than a skills approach. An

accessible framework that focuses on artificial intelligence has to be created which could

incorporate the following elements: defining and explaining the nature of AI; describing the history

of AI; showing how AI impacts work and business; demonstrating how AI impacts the education

system; showing how AI influences health and wellbeing; creating awareness for how human-

technology interaction works; highlighting how AI changes creativity and innovation; and

emphasizing how AI influences policies, governance, and ethics.

Artificial intelligence is here to stay. Eventually, it will become an integral part of society.

Each of us has to decide whether artificial intelligence should be piloting major parts of our lives

or copiloting small tasks in our daily operations. This especially applies to teaching: if an instructor

wants to utilize the power of AI, additional assignments that go beyond the AI’s capabilities (e.g.,

students enacting a play live, students building a product prototype) have to be added to the

existing course exercises in order to make the student learning-experience as valuable as

possible.

Thank you!

Christian Gilde

Managing Editor

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Journal for Advancing Business Education

VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1

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DESIGNING A PERSUASIVE UNIVERSITY WEBSITE

Zahra Pourabedin, PhD

Shepherd University

301 North King Street

Shepherdstown, WV 25443

[email protected]

James Dovel, DBA

Shepherd University

301 North King Street

Shepherdstown, WV 25443

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

University websites are one of the significant tools for recruiting students. This study tests the

influence of website design dimensions on attitudes toward the university. It focused on the

dimensions of information quality, usability, inspiration, and reciprocity. Data from an online

survey of 308 students tested the research model using factor analysis and structural equation

modeling. The results showed that two dimensions of usability and reciprocity affect the overall

attitude toward the website. The attitude toward the website influenced the attitude toward the

university. This study’s results will be helpful for higher education marketers in designing the

university website.

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According to Kusumawati, "Without enrollment growth, colleges and universities will not

sustain" (2018, p. 3). In turn, "digital marketing (DM) helps educational institutions to attract and

engage potential students and build credibility, satisfaction and loyalty among the students and

parents. “In addition, DM builds students' satisfaction as well as improves ranking, increases profit,

easy access to millennials and parents and gain instant feedback" (Harbi et al., 2022, p. 463). DM

plays a vital role in recruiting students by triggering the need for education. Existing research

indicates that DM is reshaping the educational sector; the social media component increases

student enrollment; it targets students and strengthens branding, and it is cost-effective with the

ability to target specific audiences and is an integral part of overall HEI strategy (Basha, 2019;

Harbi et al., 2022; Kusumawati, 2018).

Digital Marketing (DM), of which the website is a crucial component, plays a key role in

HEI's success. The website should serve as a front gate to the students (Subbarayalu, 2022). The

university website serves a wide range of stakeholders, performs numerous functions, is a crucial

tool, and plays a critical role in higher education (Bae et al., 2021). Additionally, the quality of a

higher education institution (HEI) is related to the quality of its website (Giannakoulopoulos et al.,

2019). HEI website users include the institution, students, the larger community, employers,

alumni, donors, and numerous outside partners and alliances (Subbarayalu, 2022). HEI website

functions include but are not limited to branding, strategy, digital marketing, discourse, and day-

to-day operations. According to the June 2023 Web Server Survey by Netcraft, there are over one

billion active websites (Netcraft, 2023.). Conversely, there are approximately 21,000 accredited

HEIs worldwide World Higher Education Database (WHED Portal, n.d.). As a result of the lesser

number of HEIs compared to other organizations, research on HEI websites is limited. This study,

by investigating the relationships between website design, attitude toward website, and attitude

toward university, provides a roadmap for the importance of and the use of websites in HEIs.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Student HEI Choice Process

Within the context of DM, websites play a vital role in the student's decision on whether to

apply to or attend a particular HEI. The process of marketing to students begins with identifying

and targeting students (see Figure 1). Social media is the primary tool for generating the need to

pursue a higher education. The student accesses the website to learn more about the HEI and its

specific programs. The student attendance decision largely depends on the information and the

interaction with the website (Basha, 2019; Harbi et al., 2022; Hoang & Rojas-Lizana, 2015;

Kusumawati, 2018).

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Figure 1: Student Decision Process

The website is critical in the process for two reasons. Over 90% of students access the

internet multiple times daily, and the website is the preferred medium for admission-related

information and activities. The HEI should clearly understand the student choice process and "have

an awareness of how to engage directly with students and what outcomes they could expect as a

return for their investment" (Kusumawati, 2018, p.7). Very few students utilize traditional in-

person or paper materials for admission-related activity. The essential elements of the admission-

related website include easy access to personal and relevant information, student programs of study

with related course offerings, and engaging directly with students about program outcomes,

including return on investment and job opportunities (Chadha & Toner, 2017; Kusumawati, 2018).

In addition to the importance of the university website in students' decision process, HEI branding

and strategy are key components.

HEI Branding and Strategy

Branding and strategy also play a vital role in the student decision process. The website is

a critical element in HEI's branding and strategy. Figure 2 illustrates how HEI's digital platforms

should result from displaying, promoting, and interacting with a well-developed brand and

organizational strategy (Subbarayalu, 2022). According to Basha, students make admission-related

decisions based on digital platforms 43% of the time from website content and 25% from social

media (2019). However, for this decision to be consistent, it should be based on proper analysis,

determination of the HEI's competitive advantage, clearly identified branding, tied to the

organizational strategy, and representative of organizational culture.

Figure 2: The Branding Process in the HEI

Numerous factors are essential when developing an HEI brand. Geographical, historical,

and socioeconomic factors are essential when developing an emotive relationship with the student

Identification and targeting

of potential students

Social media used

to generate the

need to attend

HEI

Student decision

from website

content and

interaction

Internal and

external

stakeholde

analysis

Determine

competitive

advantage

Inculcate

the

brand as

a culture

Create

logos and

slogans

Develop

branding

strategy

Create

state

the

art

digital

platforms

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(Hoang & Rojas-Lizana, 2015). Language should include adjectives like excellent, outstanding, or

fantastic and be tied directly to incoming student desires like "generous financial aid packages".

Quantifiable information like university rankings, new capital projects, student outcomes, and

research success are essential. Branding and promotion efforts should be integrated across

platforms to include website and mobile applications, search engine optimization (SEO), social

media, and customer relationship management (CRM) (Harbi et al., 2022). High-quality photos

and videos aligned with athletic branding, school spirit, admissions, and promotional content will

help increase engagement (Peruta & Shields, 2018). Branding on platforms should be evaluated

outside the organization by entities with the proper knowledge in the particular arena (Subbarayalu,

2022). Finally, tying branding to cultural and governmental policy aspirations adds value for HEIs

(Bae et al., 2021). Having explored the significance of university websites, we'll now delve into

website design practices.

Best Practices in HEI Websites

It is also important for HEI websites to follow best practices in support of the student choice

process. Accessibility, discourse, and content best practices are important elements in the use and

functionality of HEI websites.

Accessibility

An essential legal, functional, and quality requirement for websites is accessibility to the

content and functions by all (Giannakoulopoulos et al., 2019). Most HEI websites do not meet

accessibility standards as measured by Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG)

international standards, with the latest version being 2.1 with a proposed version of 2.2 in the

process (WCAG 2 Overview, Web Accessibility Initiative WAI, W3C, n.d.). One evaluation by

Ismail and Kuppusamy found 24 areas of violation among 44 college websites (2022). Common

problem areas include "color contrast, alternative texts, link visibility, list elements, lang attributes,

form labels, captions, and marquee elements" (Ismail & Kuppusamy, 2022, p. 907).

Discourse and Content

High-quality HEI websites will include discourse and content directly aimed at attracting

students and resources (Hoang & Rojas-Lizana, 2015). The best practice includes clearly

presenting their identity on the home page(s) with links to social media and personalization. Use

personal pronouns like "we" for the HEI and "your" for the student to achieve personalization.

High-quality images or videos develop stakeholder relationships tied to purposeful messaging and

branding. The About Us page should describe what the university does, and the future student link

should specifically access programs or degrees to include course information, admissions, financial

aid, and scholarships. Another best practice includes directing and personalizing for the HEI to

pursue outside funding. To enhance user experience and use, use tools to continuously measure

content engagement time by media type and subject (Peruta & Shields, 2018). Website content

should include user-submitted content to increase engagement. Finally, use the website for

practical communications. For example, the site could indicate the number of sites available for

parking or the library (Felix Răduică et al., 2019).

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Theoretical framework

This study seeks to establish a connection between the characteristics of websites and

students' attitudes in order to improve the knowledge in the choice process. It aims to illustrate the

comprehensive process of persuasion and communication that operates on university websites.

Figure 3 summarizes our conceptual model. The literature and definitions of the elements of the

conceptual model follow.

Figure 3: Conceptual Model

Information quality

According to Lee (2002), consistently fulfilling customer expectations regarding

information is known as information quality (Lee, 2002). Significant research exists on

information quality in the online customer behavior context. People mainly visit websites to find

information (Hwang et al., 2006). Information quality is one of the main contributors to

information system success (Schaupp et al., 2006; Tao, 2011). Moreover, users' perceived

information quality of websites influences their subsequent behavior, such as purchase intention

(Jeong & Lambert, 2001). By evaluating the information quality of Indian universities' websites,

Singla and Aggarwal (2018) revealed the influential role of information quality in attracting more

students.

The literature has identified various criteria to assess information quality (Davis et al.,

2019; Jeong & Lambert, 2001; Kim & Fesenmaier, 2008; Rieh, 2002). These criteria focus on

evaluating the information content of a website based on factors such as accuracy, relevance,

usefulness, currency, security, validity, and completeness (Rieh, 2002). For instance, in their study,

Davis et al. (2019) highlighted that among the information sought by students on university

websites, details regarding tuition fees and overall costs of attendance ranked as significant.

Previous studies confirmed the influence of information quality on attitudes toward websites

(Elliot et al., 2005; Priyadarshini et al., 2017). Thus, we hypothesize that:

: Information quality of the university website positively affects attitude toward the website.

Website design characteristics

Information quality

Inspiration

Reciprocity

Usability

Attitude toward the

university website

Attitude toward the

university

JABE 12

Inspiration

Inspiration is breathing in or infusing some idea, purpose, and so on into the mind; the

suggestion, awakening, or creation of some feeling or impulse, especially of an exalted kind' y

(Simpson & Weiner, 1989, p. 1036). Inspiration and visual aesthetics are commonly used

interchangeably within the website design context. Lavie and Tractinsky (2004) divided the visual

aesthetic of a website into two categories: classical aesthetic (e.g., pleasant design) and expressive

aesthetic (e.g., creative design). By adding visual and auditory features such as graphics, web

designers create an appealing experience for website users, enhancing the aesthetics of web pages

(Yang et al., 2013). Graphics can evoke strong emotions and feelings in website users when used

effectively. Ashraf et al. (2019) state that website design artifacts influence attitudes and behavioral

intentions. Tractinsky et al. (2006) evaluated the users' perceived aesthetic of web pages and

suggested that visual aesthetic affects users' attitudes toward interactive systems. Based on a

review of the literature, the following hypothesis summarizes the inspiration construct:

: Inspiration of the university website positively affects attitude toward the website.

Reciprocity

Reciprocity is a powerful motivator for influencing behavior (Cialdini et al., 1992).

Reciprocity implies that an individual offers something of value, such as knowledge, in return for

receiving something valuable (Gamberini et al.,2007). In the context of a website, reciprocity refers

to the level of exchange of information between the websites and their visitors (Srinivasan, 2004).

Melek (2004) investigated whether web users provide personal information

to customize their online experience. Of the users, 81% would provide their addresses, 96% would

provide their names, 76% would supply information about their hobbies and interests, and 95%

would provide their email addresses. Based on the results, providing additional user benefits

enables websites to create a reciprocal loop. In the case of university websites, benefits such as

contests, discounts, brochures, and guidebooks are used to create a reciprocal loop. Hsu and Lin

2008 examined the influence of knowledge sharing on attitude. The results showed that reciprocity

as a knowledge-sharing factor affects the attitude of blog users. In another study (Shiau & Luo,

2012), an online survey showed that reciprocity considerably affects attitudes toward websites.

Thus, we hypothesized that:

: Reciprocity of the university website positively affects attitude toward the website.

Usability

Usability refers to how easily and effectively users interact with a website (BenbunanFich,

2001). Usability plays an essential role in a website's success because if visitors cannot find the

information they seek, they will leave the website (Chen et al., 2004; Rudolf & Pirker, 2000;).

Several factors, such as functionality, convenience, ease of understanding, and ease of navigation,

have been proposed to measure the usability of websites (Loiacono et al., 2002). Usable websites

facilitate information-seeking (Seyhmus et al., 2006) by providing navigation features such as web

maps and search functions (Nielson, 2000). Sengel (2013) assessed the efficiency, effectiveness,

JABE 13

and satisfaction aspects of a university website's usability using Brook's System Usability Scale

(1996). Similarly, Sukmasetya et al. (2020) confirmed the impact of learnability, memorability,

efficiency, and errors on usability within university websites. Manzoor et al. (2012) compared the

usability of two university websites from students' perspectives, identifying factors like online

result facility, updated faculty profiles, and timely news and event updates as contributors to higher

usability levels.

Karani (2021) employed the usability evaluation instrument WEBUSE, developed by

Chiew and Salim (2003), to investigate the effect of university website usability on students'

satisfaction. They found that satisfaction was associated with four factors - user interface design,

navigation and links, performance and effectiveness, and content and reliability. The authors

suggested that university websites should focus on enhancing content, organization, and readability

to satisfy students, needs. The study by Wang and Senecal (2007) showed that website usability

influences users' attitudes toward the website. Thus, we hypothesized that:

: The usability of the university website positively affects attitudes toward the website.

Attitude

Attitude is a lasting tendency to consistently respond to various aspects, characteristics,

and situations related to an object, person, or environment. It significantly drives behavioral change

(Diesbach & Midgley, 2007; Kimelfeld & Watt, 2001). In a marketing context, the attitude toward

advertising is vital because it affects how people respond to specific advertisements and various

marketing messages (Lutz, 1985; Mehta, 2000). Previous research revealed the influence of

consumers' attitudes toward advertisements on attitudes toward brands and their purchase

intentions (Sallam et al., 2016; Suh & Yi, 2006). As an essential marketing communication

channel, the company's website acts as an online advertisement. Researchers highlighted the

influence of website design characteristics on consumers' attitudes, which, in turn, affects their

likelihood to recommend the website to others, engage in further information searches, and

influence their purchase behavior. For instance, online advertisements' content, such as pictures

and textual content, has been recognized as crucial in internet advertising, which can enhance the

advertisement's effectiveness (Cho, 1999; Braun-Latour & Zaltman, 2006; Dreze & Zufryden,

1997).

Researchers widely accept the relationship between users' perception of the website and

overall attitude toward the brand (Maria et al., 2006). This attitude towards the brand is crucial in

shaping future consumer behavior, including their purchase intentions (Mpinganjira, 2016).

Understanding how university websites as promotional materials influence students' attitudes

becomes essential in education marketing, as these websites typically highlight the university's

offerings. Thus, we hypothesized that:

H5: Attitude toward the website positively affects attitude toward the university.

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METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS

These five hypotheses are evaluated through the following procedure. This study used an

experiment to collect data. Table 1 shows the university websites selected for this study as

experimental websites.

Table 1: Experimental Websites of This Study

University

Website address

Shepherd University

www.shepherd.edu

Brown University

www.brown.edu

This study's target sample consisted of 308 undergraduate students at Shepherd University.

The instrument used an online questionnaire, and questions were adapted from previously

established questionnaires (see Table 2). All items were measured using the 7-point Likert scale.

Participants read about the study's objective at the beginning of each experiment session. The

instructions were to navigate the websites for 5 minutes. Then, participants answered the survey

questions. Structural Equation Modeling analysis (SEM) via Smart PLS 4 was used to analyze

data. Table 2 includes the standardized factor loading for each item, composite reliability (CR),

and average variance extracted (AVE) for each construct. Based on Table 2, the factor loading for

all factors was higher than 0.50, and composite reliability was higher than 0.7. In addition, AVE

values were greater than 0.5.

Table 2: Standard Factor Loadings, Composite Reliability and Average Variance

Extracted

Measure/Scale item

Factor

Composite

Reliability

(CR)

AVE

Information quality (Kim et al., 2009; Kim & Fesenmaier,

2008)

This website offers clear information.

This website offers up-to-date information.

This website offers sufficient information that satisfies my

studying needs.

This website provides cost information.

This website provides useful information about the

university.

This website represents information about events and

festivals, news, and unique activities of university.

This website provides job prospects information.

0.80

0.83

0.81

0.71

0.84

0.77

0.69

0.89 0.53

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Usability (Kim & Fesenmaier, 2008; Luna et al., 2012)

This website is easy to understand.

This website is easy to use.

I have the ability to control what I am doing, and where I am

at any given moment.

This website is easy to navigate in terms of time required in

order to obtain desired results.

0.91

0.92

0.840

0.88

0.87 0.64

Inspiration (Kim and Fesenmaier, 2008; Nevarez, 2012)

This website represents the university in an appealing way

through images.

This website represents university in an appealing way

through video clips.

This website represents university in an appealing way

through attractive video clips.

This website represents university in an appealing way

through virtual tours.

0.85

0.84

0.87

0.88 0.63

Reciprocity (Kim & Fesenmaier, 2008)

This website offers program brochures I’d like to request.

This website enables me directly contact offices.

This website provides helpful customer service.

This website enables me register for special offers, events,

newsletters, personalization, etc.

0.80

0.79

0.87

0.83

0.84

0.57

Attitude toward website (Lubbe, 2007)

In my opinion, surfing this website is very desirable.

I like to use this website.

I have a positive evaluation of this website.

I found it easy to obtain information from this website. I am

satisfied with using this website as a study planning assisted

tool.

0.89

0.90

0.92

0.84

0.93 0.74

Attitude toward university (Hausman & Siekpe, 2009)

I have a positive evaluation of this university.

I like to study at this university.

This is a good university.

0.90

0.89 0.72

The results of SEM analysis are illustrated in Figure 4 and Table 3. Among the five

relationships tested, three were significant. Information quality and inspiration did not have a

relationship with attitude toward the website. Usability influences attitude toward the website

(β=0.57, t=10.812, p<0.01). In addition, reciprocity influences attitude toward the website (-

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β=0.27, t=4.46, p<0.01). Finally, attitude toward website influences attitude toward university (-

β=0.64, t=15.78, p<0.01).

Figure 4: Final Model Showing Structural Path Coefficients of Hypothesized Relationships

Table 3: Results of the Structural Model

Paths

-ß

t-values

p-value

Supported

Information quality Attitude toward website

0.100

1.95

0.081

Usability Attitude toward website

0.570

10.81

0.000

Yes

Inspiration Attitude toward website

0.003

0.12

0.949

Reciprocity Attitude toward website

0.265

4.46

0.000

Yes

Attitude toward website Attitude toward

university

0.643

15.78

0.000

Yes

Information

quality

Usability

spiration

Attitude

toward

website

Attitude

toward

university

Reciprocity

0.1

0.57

0.003

0.265

0.643*

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The results from this study showed that in the higher education sector, university website

design significantly influences students' perceptions of the university and, consequently, influences

their decision-making process when selecting a university. The findings of this study revealed that

among four website design dimensions, usability and reciprocity positively related to attitude

toward the website. Based on the results, students are likely to form a positive attitude toward the

university when the website is usable and creates a reciprocal relationship with students.

According to the results of this study, usability was the most important predictor of attitude

toward the website. Previous research verifies the effect of usability on attitudes toward websites.

Thus, universities should continuously seek ways to improve the usability of their websites.

University websites should be designed with simplicity, ensuring a smooth user experience. The

university website should have a clear and logical structure, making it easy for students to navigate

and find the necessary information. For instance, navigation menus and links should be well-

organized. Websites with a high search functionality help users quickly locate specific information.

Simple website design and fast loading time lead to an enhanced user experience.

Reciprocity had a positive relationship with attitude toward websites in the present study.

This result shows the importance of establishing a mutually beneficial relationship between the

university and students. University websites should have interactive features such as live chat

support, forums, or social media integration to increase engagement with the website. University

websites can help students decide where to attend by providing comprehensive and relevant

information, such as e-brochures. In addition, support features of the websites, such as FAQs,

contribute to a reciprocal relationship between students and the university. It should also contain

different landing pages and be capable of displaying different content by user group (Felix Răduică

et al., 2019). The content on the main pages can be automatically updated using scraping tools

such as Octoparse combined with Python to read and summarize basic information. Finally,

university websites should encourage users' feedback to understand their needs, enhancing their

experience.

Information quality and inspiration did not influence the attitude toward the website

because students might be more concerned with finding accurate information quickly rather than

evaluating the overall quality of the content. Additionally, the primary determinant of student

attitude toward a university website is its functionality rather than its inspirational or aesthetic

elements. University website designers should prioritize usability and simplicity to create positive

attitudes among users, regardless of whether they are explicitly "inspired" by the design. A positive

attitude towards the website is normally influenced by information quality. It was not found in this

case. This may be explained by needing more data, by the students’ familiarity with their own

website, or by current students already having the required information.

The result of this study has strategic implications for higher education institutes using e-

marketing channels. Although universities must consider the quality of all website dimensions, our

research suggested that a website's usability and reciprocity elements are the most critical

components of website design. Our results showed the importance of website usability attributes

such as ease of navigation and straightforward content organization. The information should be

quickly accessible with hassle-free navigation and information search options. Contact

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information, including the phone number, should be on the front page. A mixture of links, buttons,

and single-level menus provides balanced navigation on the front and main pages. Students, as

task-oriented users, appreciate a responsive website design that is user-friendly and efficient in

delivering information. Finally, the website should be optimized for mobile friendliness

(Giannakoulopoulos et al., 2019).

In addition, university websites should encourage user engagement. Universities can

generate a sense of being heard and belonging by promptly addressing students' inquiries. As users

of university websites look for specific information, it is important to tailor content to individual

needs, such as offering e-brochures and increasing user connection. This can create a more positive

attitude and engagement with the university.

In summary, students value practicality and an engaging online environment over design

inspiration when forming an attitude toward a university website. Since attitude toward websites

has a positive relationship with attitude toward universities, universities should incorporate website

design effectiveness into their marketing strategy. By prioritizing web users' experience,

universities can achieve their marketing goals. University websites should optimize usability and

reciprocity features to communicate effectively with students and persuade them to attend the

university.

One of the limitations of our study is the potential for sample bias, as it includes students

from only one university. Our sample may not fully represent the broader population. Future

research could address this limitation by incorporating participants from different universities to

include participants from different geographic regions and different cultural backgrounds. This

broader sampling approach would enhance the generalizability of our findings and provide a more

comprehensive understanding of how web design impacts user behavior. Another limitation of our

study is the relatively small number of experimental websites used to manipulate web design

elements. This study only utilized two experimental websites. While this study investigated key

variables of interest, information quality, usability, inspiration, and reciprocity, a more extensive

range of experimental websites could offer a more comprehensive analysis of the impact of these

design elements. Future studies could expand upon this by including a wider variety of website

designs, incorporating different aesthetic styles, functional layouts, and interactive features. This

approach would allow researchers to provide valuable insights into how website design features

influence website effectiveness. By incorporating diverse samples and a broader range of

experimental stimuli, researchers can uncover new insights that contribute to the development of

more effective and user-friendly website designs.

JABE 19

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JABE 23

WHAT IS MISSING FROM MANAGEMENT EDUCATION?

LEARNING FROM THE STAKEHOLDERS

Maureen L. Mackenzie-Ruppel, Ph.D., PHR, CAPM, ICF-PCC

Professor of Business

Molloy University

School of Business

1000 Hempstead Avenue, C103

Rockville Centre, NY 11570

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

This paper explores whether business schools are lagging in their preparation of future leaders. In

2023 JABE published the first stage of a multi-phase agenda focused on higher education’s

responsibility to workforce preparation. Insights of senior leaders, as employers for our graduates,

were revealed. In this paper insights of faculty, in their role as the gatekeepers of business

curriculum, are explored. Without the faculty, the integration of coaching knowledge into business

education will not be successful. The purpose of this research is to ensure that management

education remains relevant to the needs of leaders and to our students’ professional goals.

JABE 24

INTRODUCTION

The profession of executive coaching lives outside of the traditional curriculum; yet the

skills and knowledge of coaching actively serve senior leaders as they face their daily challenges.

Coaching elevates participative leadership and empowerment (DiGirolamo & Tkach, 2020;

DiGirolamo & Tkach, 2019). A coaching approach serves leaders and managers as they gain

insights on their own thinking (Jamison 2018), and it serves leaders as they learn how to motivate

and empower their followers (Filipkowski, Heverin, & Ruth, 2019). Coaching can be a powerful

tool, as well as can lay the foundation as a meaningful leadership philosophy, that can serve

emerging and future leaders.

This expanding profession actively influences the development of new, rising,

transitioning, and senior leaders (Mackenzie-Ruppel, 2021; Wasylyshan, 2022). Employees desire

a workplace culture that values well-being and a sense of purpose. Chief Executives and Human

Resource Officers contract with for-profit consultants to coach their leaders in these skills. One

leader suggested, “No one is ever fully ready for these C-level jobs. It takes time to settle in, and

as talented as these people are, they need support, especially in terms of their behavior and how to

lead in these big jobs” (Wasylyshan, 2022, p. 8). Should these skills be intentionally introduced

and honed within the business curriculum leading to the Master of Business Administration

(MBA)? (McComb, 2012; McGill, Clarke, & Sheffield, 2019). The history, understanding, and

value of executive coaching as a leadership behavior and a desired organizational culture, has not

explicitly found its way into the canon of management and business education. A forward-thinking

leader, who seeks to create a coaching culture in his or her organization, may find resistance or

reluctance from many of the organization’s emerging or subordinate leaders and managers. One

reason may be that these individuals were not introduced to coaching as a legitimate management

practice within their traditional business curriculum and management education (Jamison, 2018;

McComb, 2012).

Business scholars must consider whether graduate business education is still a meaningful

ingredient of leadership preparation? In a time passed, senior leaders were expected to hold the

coveted MBA before rising in position.

As scholars and educators, we must explore whether coaching knowledge and skills should

be actively integrated into the program-level learning outcomes for graduate business education.

Currently, training for coach practitioners and internal executive coaches emerges from external

organizations, rather than from the universities and colleges. Why?

Is Higher Education Slipping in its Influence over the Rise of Future Leaders?

Higher Education was once perceived as the non-negotiable entrance ticket into positions

of authority and leadership. Business Education, especially the MBA, provided rising leaders with

a credential that stood for advanced cutting-edge knowledge and skills. Business schools create

value for their stakeholders, which include both students and employers (Cavico & Mujtaba, 2009,

p.3). Yet, public doubt has creeped into the thinking around the absolute need and economic value

for a college degree prior to journeying onto the professional pathway (Fischer, 2019: The 2019

Trends Report, 2019) though evidence reflects otherwise (Graduate School Degrees, 2016;

Rothwell, 2016; United States, 2021). Business schools have been criticized for focusing too

heavily on bottom-line achievements at all costs (Cavico & Mujtaba, 2009, p. 2) and for failing to

JABE 25

prepare future leaders with useful and relevant skills (Bennis & O’Toole, 2005). Stakeholders

“worry that college costs too much, wonder what students are learning, and question the value of

a degree” (Fischer, 2019). This perception exists though there is evidence of the economic value

of the college degree (Rothwell, 2016; United States, 2021; Graduate School Degrees, 2016).

This research is critical as it explores whether graduate business education is serving its

students professional goals as well as the needs of industry leaders who hire MBA graduates.

Vlachopoulos (2021) provides evidence that change is needed in higher education and executive

coaches can partner with college and university leaders as well as professors, in this quest.

Higher Education is still limping away from the Global Pandemic, yet the challenges that

higher education leaders are facing were already emerging before the global shut-down of higher

education. In the March 6, 2020, Chronicle of Higher Education, it was reported that 30% of

colleges face some market risk with 10% of colleges facing severe market risk (Mackenzie-

Ruppel, 2020).

The influencing factors of Higher Education’ underperformance prior to the 2020

Pandemic, include Public Doubt. The student debt crisis had fed the doubt that a college education

was relevant and worth the cost. Although there is evidence that earning a college-degree does

improve the economic future of an individual (Source: Georgetown University), public doubt

persisted (The 2019 Trends Report, 2019). Students and parents demand evidence of the value of

this significant financial investment. Are the knowledge, skills, and experiences gained necessary

for the professional journey of the student?

The market and organizational life are changing. The threat of professional organizations

becoming the ‘go-to’ educational providers, as is the case with executive coaching, is chilling.

Business Schools must take the lead as the premier source of business education. The Mega-

university offers a degree at a low cost with high convenience. Some students believe that the

credential of a college education is all that is needed, regardless of the educational content. Low

cost + speed + convenience = Degree (Mackenzie-Ruppel, 2020). The student’s strategy may be

to earn any degree and then let industry certifications educate! We, as scholars, academics, and

business educators, need to re-ignite our roles; we must become the influencers of cutting-edge

business practices.

The role of who defines premier business education is unclear. Business educators look to

accreditors for validation that their practices and curriculum allow high profile accreditations to

be retained. Regional accreditors that serve as the eyes of the Federal government (e.g., MSCHE)

focus on financial strength, faculty credentials, and strong processes, but do not dip down into the

depths of curriculum to define content (Harcleroad, 1980; Harcleroad & Eaton, 2005; Hegji, 2018).

It is perceived that discipline-specific business accreditors fill that role (e.g., IACBE and AACSB),

but these prestigious accreditors have moved away from a model curriculum (AACSB, 2013;

AACSB, 2018; AACSB, 2020; AACSB, 2021), leaving faculty to keep its thumb on the pulse of

the market’s needs.

THE EXPANDING PROFESSION OF LEADERSHIP AND EXECUTIVE COACHING

The concept of coaching is often tied to sport, yet the theoretical foundation for coaching

has a rich history that serves the individual’s ability to stretch his or her thinking, gain clarity for

problem solving, and remove limiting thoughts that shut down creativity and breakthrough

JABE 26

thinking. The early influencers of coaching emphasized self-reliance and aligns with the

emergence of Humanistic Psychology (1950s), which shifted the focus away from ‘what is wrong

with you?’ and pathological labels, to elevating human potential and the holistic focus on the

human experience. The theoretical foundation for coaching emerged from the same theorists that

fill our Organizational Behavior textbooks such as Abraham Maslow and Kurt Lewin. (Maslow,

1968; Schultz, 1994; Wildflower, 2013).

In 1995 Thomas Leonard started a non-profit organization called the International Coach

Federation (ICF) to offer support to fellow coaches. It is now considered the gold standard for

coach certification (International Coaching Federation 2021; International Coaching Federation,

2020; International Coaching Federation Website). Coaching organizations have emerged

throughout the world and influence control of coaching education and the certification arm of this

growing profession. Organizations include: The International Authority for Professional Coaching

and Mentoring (IAPC&M), Center for Credentialing and Education (CCE), European Mentoring

& Coaching Council (EMCC), International Association of Coaching (IAC), and the Association

of Coaching (AoC).

The use of coaching skills has expanded beyond professionally trained coach practitioners

to include managers, leaders, human resource professionals, and talent-development professionals.

(International Coaching Federation, 2020). Related to why this research is important is that only

10% of coach training is university-based (International Coaching Federation, 2020).

Evidence exists that coaching has elevated and supported leaders at the highest level of the

organization, even as they transition into C-suite roles. Senior leaders gain meaningful support

from professional coaches. Rising leaders are facing increased complexity within organizational

life; professional coaches support leaders beyond what is defined as industry specific problem

solving, and broaden their thinking around workplace relationships, calming emotional turmoil,

and facing the multi-faceted challenges of the changing workplace (McGill, Clarke, & Sheffield,

2019).

Research co-sponsored by the ICF and the Human Capital Institute (HCI) has revealed the

emergence of a coaching culture in organizations (Filipkowski, Heverin, & Ruth, 2019). The

results revealed that organizations are elevating their use of both internal coach practitioners,

external coach practitioners, and have managers and leaders using coaching skills. Respondents

reported that coaching activities were used to develop leaders, enhance performance management

discussions, and to develop talent (Filipkowski, Heverin, & Ruth, 2019).

MULTI-PHASE RESEARCH AGENDA

Triangulation of research invites multiple viewpoints to reduce bias. With this intention in

mind, a multi-phase IRB approved research plan was designed. Business education is intended to

create value for the students, the employers, and all stakeholders, especially responding to the

marketplace (Cavico & Mujtaba, 2009). The intention for this research path is to ensure that

management education remains cutting edge and relevant to the needs of organizational leaders

and to business students’ academic and professional goals.

To explore this agenda, the primary stakeholders of business education must be invited into

the research process. Revising management education requires the voices of (1) senior leaders as

the employers of our future graduates, (2) management faculty as the gatekeepers and stewards of

JABE 27

management education, and (3) graduates, who have earned their MBA and are now firmly

established in their professional lives (Mackenzie-Ruppel, 2021).

The first stage of this research was published (Mackenzie-Ruppel, 2023) and included the

literature review and discussion as to who defines premier business education, details of the

growing profession of executive coaching, and higher education’s responsibility to relevant

workforce preparation. Most compelling were the research results drawing insights from eleven

in-depth interviews with senior leaders as the future employers of our business graduates. The

research questions explored the interest, the process, and the potential benefit of integrating

coaching skills, theories, and knowledge into management education. A primary outcome revealed

was employers’ expectations of business educators as we prepare our students to become their

future leaders. (Mackenzie-Ruppel, 2021)

In this paper the insights drawn from another major stakeholder of business education are

reported: Management Faculty. Without the faculty, the integration of coaching skills, knowledge,

and disposition into business education will not be successful. A research question emerging from

stage 1 results that bridges to this stage 2 research is whether student learning outcomes, skills,

and knowledge can align with the needs of employers and the marketplace?

Recap of Stage 1 Research: Insights from Senior Executives (Mackenzie-Ruppel, 2023)

Table 1 reflects a summary of the results drawn from that research. A total of 138 data

points were drawn from the transcripts of eleven in-depth interviews with senior executives from

a range of industries. These data points were systematically reduced by the researcher in an

iterative process to allow the themes to emerge. A total of fifteen (15) themes emerged that were

presented under three umbrella concepts. They are: (1) executive leadership within organizations,

(2) expectations of business graduates after being hired, and (3) expectations of business educators

in preparing graduates to be workplace successful (Mackenzie-Ruppel, 2023).

Table 1

Summary of Research Results-

Senior Leaders

Executive Leadership within

Organizations

Expectations of Business

Graduates after being Hired

Expectations of Educators in

Preparing Graduates to be

Workplace Successful

Theme 1 - Leaders are exposed to

executive coaching in different ways

Theme 1 - Who will get the job?

Theme 1 - Weakening student entitlement

Theme 2 - Shift in coaching from being

perceived as remediation

Theme 2 - Expectations of young leaders as

they develop and rise in the organization

Theme 2 - Managing student expectations

Theme 3 - Senior leaders align coaching

with mentoring

Theme 3 - Expectations of rising leaders as

they begin to lead others

Theme 3 - Gaining real-world experience

Theme 4 - External vs. internal

organizational coaches

Theme 4 - Acquiring and using skills

Theme 5 - A coaching culture is desired,

but it is unclear how it is defined

Theme 5 – Integrating coaching skills,

knowledge, & practice into business

education

Theme 6 - Measuring the benefits of

coaching

Theme 7 - Coaching resources

dedicated to support diversity, equity,

and inclusion

JABE 28

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH CONTINUES

University faculty understand that revising the content of management education requires

effort and energy as the faculty champions navigate committees and university processes. Most

essential is whether the recommended revisions will serve and align with the academic goals of

the discipline, industry, and students. This multiphase study is laser focused on the stakeholders

of business education. The viewpoints, insights, and desires of senior leaders, as they are the

employers of our future graduates, have been captured (Mackenzie-Ruppel, 2023).

This paper reports the data and insights of the Management Faculty who will be expected

to champion, build, and deliver the revised curriculum. The range of research questions will

explore the interest, the process, and the potential benefit of integrating coaching skills, theories,

and knowledge into the canon of management education. Business faculty must face the reality

that more organizations are hiring coaches to help onboard leaders and to support rising talent as

they move up the corporate ladder, yet, management education has left the coaching discipline on

the fringe, mostly living within the single Organizational Behavior (OB) course embedded in the

business curriculum.

A multi-phased research agenda was designed to deeply explore this topic. In this second

paper the insights gained from a valued stakeholder of business education is reported. The subjects

for this study are Management Faculty willing to share their experience and expectations of

business education as it pertains to executive and leadership coaching. This research will inform

business educators on how its influence over future leaders can remain relevant.

Subjects

The primary stakeholder in delivering premier business education is the faculty. Gaining

insights from those who transition individuals from novice to experts is valuable in exploring how

business education can be most effective in preparing future business professionals and leaders.

Eleven Business Faculty were interviewed from eleven different institutions of higher

education. Of the eleven faculty: 45% were male, 55% were female; 45% held the academic rank

as Full Professor and 55% held the rank of Associate Professor. The subject group reported a total

of 223 years of college level teaching experience. The average teaching years of the eleven faculty

members is over 20 years each with a range of 7 to 40 years. Even after removing the outliers, the

average teaching experience is 20 years.

All the faculty subjects worked within the management discipline, with many having an

additional discipline, such as Accounting, Information Technology, Economics, Business Law,

and Business Analytics. None of the faculty subjects are from the same college/university, so 11

institutions are represented. Of the 11 institutions, 9 of the 11 are in the state of New York, with 1

within a borough of the City of New York; 3 are located on Long Island, NY, and the remaining 5

being spread through the state of New York. The other 2 institutions are located in NJ and KS.

JABE 29

Research Methods and Results

The design of this research study is exploratory in nature (Morse & Richards, 2002). The

qualitative approach seeks rich data rather than simply consensus. It seeks to draw meaning from

the data using content analysis, leading to grounded theory. The IRB-approved protocol was

followed. In-depth interviews were used to capture the experience, insights, viewpoints, and

opinions of the eleven subjects. The interviews followed the protocol for a semi-structured

interview, which allowed the researcher to participate in the research (Lincoln & Guba, 1985); to

probe the subject’s answers, while still maintaining the basic interview structure. Qualitative

researchers are “interested in meaning - how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and

their structures of the world” (Creswell, 1994, p. 145). Therefore, this study uses qualitative

methods to capture and analyze the data.

The interview schedule of questions was open-ended and invited unqualified responses

from the subjects that provided increased depth into the questions surrounding workplace

preparation for the students. The questions inquired as to each subject’s teaching focus, whether

his or her institution currently integrates coaching into its curriculum, familiarity with the coaching

process as compared to mentoring, consulting, and therapy; perceived risk/benefit related to the

integration of coaching, the faculty member’s role in preparing the student for the workplace, and

what the faculty member would need to know or learn to be prepared to teach and/or support

coaching skills and knowledge at the college-level. The researcher also captured demographic

data, including level of leadership and gender (See appendix for schedule of interview questions).

The interviews were recorded and transcribed without any subject identifiers being

captured. The original recording was destroyed as soon as the transcript was created. A total of

110 data points were systematically drawn from the eleven transcripts. Content analysis was used

to mine the data points from the transcribed interviews. These data points are verbatim sentences,

words, or sets of sentences that express concepts. The data points were reduced in a multi-staged

iterative process to allow the themes to emerge.

A total of eleven meaningful themes (11) emerged that are being presented under two

umbrella concepts, which are: (1) understanding coaching, and (2) the work of the faculty to

deliver coaching skills and knowledge to students. To help illustrate the themes, I selected a

number of datapoints and included them in the report.

RESULTS

Results Concept 1: Understanding Coaching

These themes reflect the faculty seeking to understand coaching and finding its place as a

discipline that needs faculty stewardship in response to market shifts. Many of the faculty had

heard of coaching yet had a mixed level of awareness and acceptance. Some had no familiarity

with coaching beyond what would align with coaches in the world of sport. As descriptors of what

is not coaching were placed in front of the faculty, deeper insights and understanding emerged.

The faculty started to align coaching with areas that made sense for them.

A total of 25 datapoints drawn from the eleven leaders’ interview transcripts were reduced,

allowing five (5) themes to emerge that reflect the faculty seeking to understand coaching.

JABE 30

Theme 1: Faculty Not Aware of Coaching as a Professional Business Discipline

Though not a major theme within the results, it is still relevant to report that not everyone

recognized that coaching exists in the world of business as a formal area of knowledge.

Select data points that illustrate this theme include:

“I'm not aware of actual coaching.”

“Not formally familiar with a coaching model, but I think that this is what you do as a good

management teacher or instructor. I think that's some of that comes from trying to work your hardest

for the students to achieve great things.”

Theme 2 – Coaching Brings to Mind – Sport

Similar to theme 1, this is not a major theme, but it is relevant to the faculty finding

alignment with coaching as a business discipline. Initially some faculty had difficulty separating

coaching from sports. Some suggested that the word coaching has no meaning in business

curriculum beyond “the athletic arena”. One faculty shared his own mentor’s reliance of

influential athletic coaches’ behaviors as examples to illustrate the difference between leading and

managing. It was suggested that “one way to think of coaching more directly resonates with the

sporting context.” One faculty member used the example of athletic coaching to express that the

coach does not need to have been the greatest athlete to be successful in coaching another athlete.

Select data points that illustrate this theme include:

“Coaching is not a word that has any meaning in our business curriculum. People are familiar with

coaching in the athletic arena.”

“My previous mentor was very passionate and would explain the difference between coaching and

managing; he would always give us the examples of baseball managers and baseball coaches.”

“One way to think of coaching more directly resonates with the sporting context.”

“I would use a sports analogy in that a coach does not necessarily to have been the best baseball

player but can still coach another to be great.”

Theme 3 – Coaching as Compared to Mentoring, Consulting and Therapy

The formal coaching profession makes clear that coaching is not mentoring, not therapy,

and not consulting. The International Coaching Federation (ICF) defines coaching as a partnership

between the coach and coachee “in a thought-provoking and creative process that inspires them

to maximize their personal and professional potential. The process of coaching often unlocks

previously untapped sources of imagination, productivity, and leadership.” (International

Coaching federation Website, 2021). When exploring how the business faculty perceived the

process and concept of coaching, there were some faculty that expressed “surprise” that

mentorship was separate from coaching, suggesting that these concepts “get muddled together”

and that “they are all connected.” More often the faculty accepted the separation of these four

JABE 31

concepts. This acceptance is in contrast to the senior leaders’ perceptions; the leaders had less

acceptance in separating coaching from mentoring (Mackenzie-Ruppel, 2023). Mentoring

suggests that the coach has previously walked the same or similar steps that the coachee is now

needing to navigate, and therefore can provide the meaningful guidance or mentorship. The faculty

more easily grasped coaching as a discipline and set of skills that can help a coachee inspire and

shift thinking.

Select data points that illustrate this theme include:

“I would connect coaching and mentoring. Those are the closest among the four and the one that is

the least related to would-be therapy.”

“We will need help to understand the difference among coaching, mentoring, and consulting. Those

all get muddled together; what's the difference?”

“Coaching is probably really therapy. And we don't want anything to do with that.”

“Mentoring is something they've heard about. Mentoring means somebody else is going to throw

them a rope and pull them through the situation. Coaching requires much more individual

knowledge, effort, and responsibility. With coaching you are taking responsibility for jointly noticing

where questions need to be asked and figuring out ways to ask them that won't totally put people off.”

“When coaching is discussed, they are really thinking about mentoring.”

“We as faculty are trying to mentor these students into their professions, whatever they may be. Just

because I'm teaching management does not mean that everyone's going to be a manager. So,

mentoring and coaching comes out a lot in advisement, like when we're mapping out their academic

plan.”

Theme 4 – Communications as a proxy discipline and skill

A theme that emerged is that faculty naturally align communications skills with the

coaching skills. As the path to success is envisioned, an individual with well-developed active

listening and speaking skills is also envisioned. A belief emerges that improving communication

skills is a prerequisite for coaching skills. It is suggested that a coach requires “reflective or active

listening skills.” Insight is expressed that the student must minimize any predetermined idea and

focus on “asking the questions that get folks to thinking.” There was a concern that communication

skills have diminished in students and coaching will require a recommitment to teaching and

learning communications skills. Written skills did not emerge, rather a prime focus was on

listening blended with critical thinking skills that would inform powerful questioning.

Select data points that illustrate this theme include:

“Within the School of Management, we talk a lot about the importance of communications as a path

for being successful in any organization.”

“Students need coaching with regard to improving their communications. Before they can move

forward with coaching others or being coached, active listening must be developed. Communications

have really diminished. I think communication goes hand-in-hand with coaching.”

JABE 32

“Develop listening skills in a business communication class, they need reflective or active listening

skills. Learn to not have a predetermined idea in mind, mentoring but coaching, It sounds like you

need to start asking the questions that get folks to thinking. Help them practice those skills.”

“They need to communicate well, and not just a public speaking class where you get up and say your

name the first day, and then the next day you talk about your dog, really, truly talking to a consuming

public. They need to do a lot of that and get calm and become comfortable with it.”

Theme 5 – Curriculum Needs to be Reflective of what Employers Need

Faculty have a role in society as gatekeepers for their disciplines, fields, and professions,

depending on the role of their faculty (e.g., humanities, sciences, nursing, business). Business

faculty transition their students from being unconsciously incompetent through the stages toward

conscious competence. Unlike other disciplines, the world of business as a profession requires

keeping a collective thumb on the pulse of what business leaders and employers need of their

future employees and leaders. This theme emerged as the faculty gained this insight that coaching

does exist and is being used in the business world as a tool to develop talent and to lead change.

This theme reflects the bridge from the faculty seeking and gaining understanding of coaching to

the next umbrella concept where the faculty recognize their work to deliver this knowledge and

these skills to their students.

Select data points that illustrate this theme include:

“Making sure that those skills are what employers want so they don't have to train them when our

graduates get there. We don’t want employers to be disappointed.”

“We need to be aware of the changing landscape of business industries.”

“The type of curriculum that we're providing must be appropriate and driven in large part by what

employers’ needs are; that relationship is key.”

“Our students need to learn techniques to bring right to the workplace, so that it's not left to the

employer to first teach them the skills.”

Results Concept 2: Work of the Faculty to Deliver Coaching Skills and Knowledge to

Students.

The faculty moved from understanding to action as they recognized their role in delivering

the knowledge and skills that the profession needs from its graduates. A total of 85 datapoints

drawn from the eleven faculty interview transcripts, were reduced, allowing six (6) themes to

emerge. These themes collectively tell a story. At first faculty seek to find where coaching skills

and knowledge may already exist in the curriculum, next the faculty become more focused on

where it could be inserted in the current curriculum, then move to a clearer affirmation that

coaching needs to be established as a course, certificate, badge, or program. The story continues

as the faculty reflect on required faculty expertise needed to effectively deliver this new

JABE 33

curriculum. The final theme is where a level of realism descends as to the challenges that higher

education faces in creating new curriculum.

Theme 1: Faculty Find Where Coaching May Overlap the Current Curriculum

Faculty shared their reaction that coaching may already live in parts of the curriculum.

Their alignment of coaching with consulting, managing HR, and leading change, had faculty

seeing the coaching knowledge and skills within those modules. Another facet of the academic

reach to the student where coaching was perceived as overlapping, was the area of career

development. Faculty named both programs and courses where they suggested that coaching

already lives. This included such programs as the Master of Organizational Development and such

courses as Entrepreneurship and Organizational Behavior.

Select data points that illustrate this theme include:

“We do not have a coaching class, but we have consulting, we have change management, we have

HR, we have stuff that might straddle the border of this notion of coaching.

“We already integrate career coaching, but not general coaching. That is why I was interested in this

because I know that career coaching is a subset of the broader umbrella of coaching.”

“In my master's organizational development class, we talked about executive coaching or team

executive coaching. But the students don't get the practical approach on how to develop themselves,

or to develop others.”

“I feel that a fair amount of coaching happens both directly and indirectly, in our entrepreneurship

courses as well, because the students create business plans for different, venture ideas, and you have

to make sure that they are viable. And so, there's coaching, “

Theme 2: Faculty Recommend Places in the Current Curriculum Where Coaching May Fit

As the faculty members’ thinking expanded around the knowledge and skills of coaching,

recommendations emerged as to where the natural fit may allow for insertion in the current

curriculum. It was suggested that undergraduate students may be less ready to learn and

demonstrate coaching skills. Rather, it was suggested that undergraduate students become exposed

to “being coached,” and that undergraduates learn “what it feels like to be coached” and experience

“the benefits of coaching.” Graduate students are better prepared to learn how to coach. A system

was recommended where graduate students would mentor undergraduate students. The explicit

courses that faculty recommended for the integration of coaching skills and knowledge included:

Leadership, Organizational Behavior, and Human Resource Management. Career and professional

development were also explicitly recommended as a natural fit where “coaching at a more basic

level would work …in terms of interview skills, resume writing, or communications.” It was also

suggested that “every one of our fields could include coaching. There could be coaching related

to analytics, coaching related to project management, and working with teams.” This theme found

faculty actively looking for the spots in the current curriculum that would welcome coaching skills

and knowledge.

JABE 34

Select data points that illustrate this theme include:

“I think you could integrate coaching within the curriculum at an undergraduate level, but more so

students should have the experience of being coached. So that they learn what it feels like to be

coached and the benefits of coaching. And then talk about the idea that one day you will be doing this

for others. It integrates with organizational behavior, leadership or HR; you can integrate in those

three courses.”

“There are all sorts of ways you could get creative about it, too. How STEM undergraduate students

do internships, you might want your MBA students to actually take on a mentee, while they're in the

MBA program. The person would need to agree, but you would train them to provide a set of tools

that they would be working with, so they would get the experience of it.”

“In leadership and organizational behavior, they talk about all the different leadership theories. That

translates to how you help that individual person, mold them, guide them, coach them to the next

level.”

“In the organizational behavior class, you're talking about employee satisfaction. It’s not framed in

coaching language; but there would be overlap. We could easily change some of the language to talk

about coaching in those classes.”

“I think that every one of our fields could include coaching. There could be coaching related to

analytics, coaching related to project management, and working with teams.”

“Coaching at a more basic level would work; professional development in terms of interview skills,

resume writing, or communications.”

Theme 3: Affirmations Made as to Establishing a Form of Coaching as a Course or Program

As faculty consider where the coaching knowledge and skills currently show up in the

curriculum, and then recommended where it could be inserted, the affirmations for establishing

new courses, certificates, and programs emerged. Consistent with the prior insights, faculty

recommended establishing new learning opportunities at the graduate level. One faculty member

remarked that “I don’t really think our undergraduate students are ready. They have a hard enough

time figuring themselves out.” Faculty recommended that coaching knowledge be delivered as a

micro-credential, a stack-able certificate, or a separate course. It wa suggested that coaching is

“too big a piece just to be sprinkled lightly into a class here or there. It's something that would

need its own course.” It was also suggested that the coaching course be more fully integrated into

the curriculum to ensure overlap to avoid having the coaching course be “stranded by itself in a

little corner and not allowing the students to get the added benefit.” Another professor

recommended a “dedicated track” be developed within the MBA program. As the faculty

members’ thinking expanded, a theme of revenue opportunities emerged. Faculty suggested the

low cost and low risk that a coaching program presents with one professor stating that “you could

start this program with low risk, high reward.” Select data points that illustrate this theme include:

“I am thinking that coaching would be better integrated in an MBA program than undergrad; I don't

really think our undergraduate students are ready. They have a hard enough time figuring themselves

JABE 35

out. The first step is having them do an interest inventory like the Strong Interest Inventory. They also

can do the DISC assessment, which relates to working with others in groups and things. I feel that

undergraduates need to understand themselves before they can work on helping others. I think it

would be a very interesting addition to an MBA program.”

“If coaching could lead to a certificate, that might be something of interest. Allow different

certificates to be added to our students resumes; it can be attractive to employers.”

“Maybe something like what they call a micro-credential might be a starting point. And if it shows

promise and success, then of course, it could expand.”

“The new trend is stackable certificates. “

“I think even a dedicated track whether it's an MBA with a concentration in whatever the knowledge

and skills that would prepare one to go in that direction for the proper credentialing.

“We are introducing consulting courses, so coaching is close. So maybe consulting-coaching! Adding

a course could be the right path. They could take this course and get a certificate. Needs curricular

overlap to keep the coaching course from being stranded by itself in a little corner and not allowing

the students to get the added benefit.”

“Certificates and badges and stuff like that haven't really reached our school yet, but are about to

and can add value, I would try that.”

“I definitely see the benefit of integrating coaching because it can be a revenue producer, in terms of

return on investment. It is education in a field that is not yet totally flooded.”

“I don't really see a risk of starting because it's not the kind of program where you have to order

millions of dollars of lab equipment to start.”

Theme 4: Why and How Might Coaching be Offered to Students

This theme emerged with the greatest strength as faculty shared both why and how coaching

should and could be offered to students. Leading with the why creates the strongest motivation for

integrating coaching skills and knowledge in the curriculum. It was suggested that “being part of

a learning organization … or part of a coaching culture is accepting that there’s going to be

failure” therefore leading to the desired outcome of helping “each other understand what we need

to do to move forward” with the question of “how do we incorporate that into the curriculum.”

Understanding that “failing is an opportunity to learn” is an insight also gained from the senior

leader interviews. Helping students to “change criticism into coaching” elevated the learning

objective and aligned with other faculty insights that “education is not just about business

management,” rather the students “need to go out and be lifelong learners.”

The value of coaching in helping individuals respect each other was articulated by one

professor suggesting that “DEI is part of coaching; it is to get people to listen to others and to

respect others and to really get to know them better.” The whys continued with faculty suggesting

that coaching “would help people with the changing society” and is “leadership training at its

JABE 36

finest.” One comment suggested that coaching is “like a personal Kaizen process … to continually

improve.”

As faculty recognized the value for students bleeds beyond the professional credential, the

recommendation emerged that it be embedded in the general education program because it

supports “critical thinking” and “problem solving …where you're asking questions.” The long-

term benefit to the student is the development of a “growth mindset. We need to teach them how

to instill and appreciate that.”

Select data points that illustrate this theme include:

“Failing is an opportunity to learn; that's a big part of learning. Helping students be aware that

they're learning from their successes and the failures; then teaching students to be able to help each

other.”

“If they have some positive experiences within the curriculum, they may be more open. Most schools

stress that learning is a lifelong process; somehow coaching has to be linked with that lifelong

process.”

“Instructors should be more coach-like with their students.”

“I think coaching is almost synonymous with leadership. It's leadership training at its finest.”

“DEI is part of coaching; it is to get people to listen to others and to respect others and to really get

to know them better. That would be something you would coach people towards; to be successful in

business.”

“It is really critical to have experiential activities built into your classes so the students can

experience what a real-life setting would be like and have lots of situations that are not canned. They

should get hit with a lot of different types of people and a lot of different types of organizations that

make them uncomfortable sometimes.”

“We are trying to generate the leaders of the future, so I hope that I'm inspiring them. I tell them, you

are a leader, so don't just sit there and stare at the book, tell me what you would do. So, I think that’s

coaching. We do a lot of hands-on exercises that would be in leadership training or a coaching

session.”

“So, our coach brings a problem to the course. The students work with each other to coach and lead

and come to some type of resolution. But what can faculty do more? I think one of the things that we

could do better is incorporate this process throughout the program. I sometimes feel as if the students

have this one class, and they do really well. And they learn a great number of skills, but we don't pull

that through to the end of the program.”

“We're seeing a different type of student that considers the word coaching as some sort of a negative

connotation, as if they've done something wrong. I think we need to be better about educating

students as to what it means to be coached. How can we help students understand coaching and

provide opportunities throughout the program that do not result in defensiveness.”

JABE 37

“We should provide opportunities for students to be coached. Take our students that are struggling

and find someone who can coach them. We must continue to reinforce the benefits of coaching and

then provide opportunities; these are the best two things that we can be doing at the college level.”

“Like a personal Kaizen process, we try to take care of ourselves; to continually improve.”

“Keep focused on the growth mindset. We have to teach students not to perceive feedback as an

attack; it can be supportive, it can be helpful, it can be something to build upon.”

“It goes back to critical thinking, problem solving, and philosophy classes, where you're asking

questions.”

Theme 5: What do Faculty Need to Offer a Coaching Course or Program

As faculty become more committed to integrating a coaching curriculum the question was

raised as to what the faculty would need to feel confident and competent in teaching this

curriculum. The theme reflected the desire of the faculty to gain the needed knowledge, skills, and

credentials. It was suggested that “you need people who are cutting edge to teach.” The faculty

desire “expertise” in coaching before being expected to teach. Gaining this expertise from outside

was a recognized option. Also, it was suggested that “current faculty develop that expertise … and

to have expertise come from the outside, or a combination of both, which is typically what

happens.” More than one faculty suggested that faculty be supported to gain licensure or the

coaching credentials that are recognized by the profession. The faculty “want to fully understand

what coaching is.”

Select data points that illustrate this theme include:

“You need people who are cutting edge to teach.”

“For us to teach it, we need expertise, whether that's within our existing faculty, or the expertise

comes from outside. So, one option is to have current faculty develop that expertise. And second is to

have expertise come from the outside, or a combination of both; which is typically what happens.”

“They should get me some licensure from an organization like what you're getting your licensure

from before I can teach coaching.”

“So as a coach-teacher, I need certifications; I need all of the curriculum that is involved in the

coaching body of knowledge, I would want to fully learn and fully master that.”

“it would be hard to coach someone on coaching unless I felt I had been coached on coaching”

“I would want to really make sure that as faculty we fully do our homework; we are really at that

level. I don't know if it's realistic to expect all faculty who want to be teaching in that area to be

certified and have that level of coaching experience; but whatever we would need, whatever we could

realistically get, I would want to go through that program to learn.”

JABE 38

Theme 6: Barriers to Establishing a Coaching Curriculum

The final theme that emerged expresses the barriers to integration and curriculum creation.

This is a valuable theme as it may help us understand why this growing profession is gaining its

education outside of colleges and universities. Though the faculty may be willing, the process to

develop and offer new credentials appears to be a roadblock. Barriers included the lack of qualified

faculty with one professor stating, “I don't know how many people have PhDs in this field.”

Another barrier is motivating faculty to change, with one professor suggesting that “it is a fairly

heavy lift and hard to get faculty to agree to change curriculum” and another professor sharing

that “it’s hard to reach consensus.” Another barrier is convincing administration that the market

demands the change, with one faculty member remarking that his “school wouldn’t start coaching

unless they heard executives talking about coaching.” And another professor stating that “someone

must be able to demonstrate that there is demand in the market for this sort of thing for it to be

supported.” Another professor shared that the barriers are less economic and more political, stating

that “I think the politics of the college is too much; why are you knocking your head against the

wall with colleges?” And the final barrier that was shared was the lack of motivation by senior

faculty in learning a new field. Comments shared that “I’m past that at this point in my career”

and “It’s kind of late for me.” One professor stated that “There's a lot of teachers out there that

have apathy. And it's a lot easier to just show the PowerPoints that come with the textbook.

Select data points that illustrate this theme include:

“My school wouldn’t start coaching unless they heard executives talking about coaching. It is a fairly

heavy lift and hard to get faculty to agree to change curriculum.”

“It's just so hard to make new curriculum happen; you know the realities of developing curriculum

and getting it approved.”

“This topic historically hasn't been taught in college; I don't know how many people have PhDs in

this field. People with practical experience can be brought in to teach in this Program.

“Someone must be able to demonstrate that there is demand in the market for this sort of thing for it

to be supported.

It's just so hard to develop a new graduate curriculum; it's just so hard to reach consensus.”

“It’s kind of late for me. I would have liked to have been coached so that I would have known how to

coach. I would like for it to be modeled for me as to how to be a good coach.”

“I don't want to be learning this to teach it to the students, I’m past that at this point in my career.

Getting the right staffing resources, I think, is the first thing to ensure, which is a real challenge in

today's environment.”

“I think the politics of the college is too much; why are you knocking your head against the wall with

colleges? Just build your own business.”

“We don't have the skills necessary to provide coaching for our students. It's a very simple answer,

but it's the truth.”

JABE 39

“I'm relying on adjuncts to help me understand what's the hottest thing in the market. I'm relying on

folks outside of the college to help me with that. And that's a difficult position because I know in

theory what I want to interject into my courses, but I don't have that expertise in order to really make

that happen with competence.”

“There's a lot of teachers out there that have apathy. And it's a lot easier to just show the

PowerPoints that come with the textbook.

“Building this new coaching program will take a lot of energy and a lot of work.”

Summary of Results

The two umbrella concepts and the eleven related themes are summarized below in Table 2.

Table 2

Summary of Research Results-

Management Faculty

Understanding Coaching

Work of the Faculty to Deliver Coaching Skills and

Knowledge to Students

Theme 1 - Faculty Not Aware of Coaching as a

Professional Business Discipline

Theme 1 - Faculty Find Where Coaching May Overlap the Current

Curriculum

Theme 2 – Coaching Brings to Mind - Sport

Theme 2 – Faculty Recommend Places in the Current Curriculum Where

Coaching May Fit

Theme 3 - Coaching as Compared to Mentoring,

Consulting and Therapy

Theme 3 - Affirmations Made as to Establishing a Form of Coaching as

a Course or Program

Theme 4 - Communications as a proxy discipline and skill

Theme 4 - Why and How Might Coaching be Offered to Students

Theme 5 - Curriculum Needs to be Reflective of what

Employers Need

Theme 5 – What do Faculty Need to Offer a Coaching Course or

Program

Theme 6 - Barriers to Establishing a Coaching Curriculum

CONCLUSION

Is it not the role of the academic scholar to keep his or her thumb on the pulse of the

discipline to create new knowledge that will serve the discipline? The university scholar translates

this gained knowledge into a robust educational environment that should be cutting edge.

Academic faculty are often laser focused on what the accreditor desires, often hearing such an

acclamation that we ‘can’t change’ or ‘must change’ because our accreditor demands it!

What may have gone unnoticed is that a review of the AACSB standards provides

invitation to the coaching skills, theories, and knowledge. The AACSB had shifted from its 2013

defined list of skills and knowledge areas to a broader definition of what is expected of curriculum

content. The 2013 standard 9 included required skill development of reflective thinking, which was

further defined as the student’s ability to “understand oneself in the context of society” (AACSB,

2013, p. 35). Also included in the skills requirement was Interpersonal relations and teamwork;

the ability to “work effectively with others and in team environments” (AACSB, 2013, p. 35). The

JABE 40

knowledge area where the coaching knowledge would fit is in the “approaches to management”

and “group and individual behaviors in organizations and society” (AACSB, 2013, p. 35). The

first time that leadership emerged in the 2013 standards is at the graduate level with a fit for

coaching theories: “Leading in organizational situations, thinking creatively, and framing

problems and developing creative solutions in the specialized discipline” (AACSB, 2013, p. 35-

36).

The AACSB standards articulate that a valued business curriculum “promotes a lifelong

learning mindset in learners, including creativity, intellectual curiosity, and critical and analytical

thinking.” Program standards expect the program to “foster a lifelong learning mindset,” expecting

that “curriculum should reflect current and innovative business theories and practices” (AACSB,

2020, p. 38, standard 4.3). At the graduate level, it is expected that students are prepared to lead

an organization, manage in a diverse global context, think creatively, make sound decisions and

exercise good judgment under uncertainty. (AACSB, 2020, p. 39, standard 4.1). Essential to the

AACSB standards is that the “Faculty demonstrate a lifelong learning mindset with respect to

their domain expertise. This means faculty take responsibility for continuing their professional

development to maintain currency and relevancy in their field of expertise and embrace the idea

that we never stop learning.” (AACSB, 2020, p. 47, standard 7.3). In both the 2013 and the current

standards, ‘Executive Education’ is discussed, but positioned outside of the degree, defined as

“educational activities that do not lead to a degree but have educational objectives at a level

consistent with higher education in management. Examples include corporate training or

professional development seminars” (AACSB, 2020, p. 41, ‘Definitions’; and 2013 & p. 42 under

‘Standard 5’, ‘Assurance of Learning’).

Most compelling is the research by the AACSB on lifelong learning and talent

management. The coaching skills and knowledge are not explicitly cited, but to a coaching

professional it is implied. For example, “…learners themselves must take on more responsibility,

including the assessment of their own needs and the identification and selection of learning

alternatives to address those needs. New tools and platforms are being built to help learners

address this challenge.” (AACSB 2018, p. 6). Relevant to the focus on management education

within business schools is the AACSB’s recognition that much education is taking place within

the corporate world. Its exploration focused on the “overlapping space between lifelong learning

and company-based talent management.” (AACSB, 2018, p. 7). Chilling is the emerging insight

that some “companies are beginning to question whether their degree requirements are hindering

rather than helping their efforts to attract talent with the skills they need” (AACSB, 2018, p. 14).

Two challenges in the talent management arena included: (1) a pedagogical approach for closing

skill gaps, and (2) skills that the talent-managers require (AACSB, 2018, p. 19).

Layering the insights drawn from the senior leaders as relates to the integration of coaching

knowledge, skills, and disposition (Mackenzie-Ruppel, 2023) with the insights drawn from the

management faculty, we see the emergence of a compelling case for the integration of the

foundation of executive coaching into graduate management education. As the profession of

executive coaching gently leads us toward the leadership development path, business educators

can partner with coaching organizations to integrate professional credentials into business

education. This model has existed for years with the accounting profession and the pathway toward

sitting for the Certified Public Accounting (CPA) exam. Colleges are now integrating one or more

of the Certified Financial Analyst (CFA) exams into the business curriculum as well.

JABE 41

A transformational mindset is needed to ensure that business educators are aware of what

is needed and desired in the marketplace so that there is no gap in the preparation for these rising

professionals. As the executive and leadership coaching professional has grown, there appears to

be only minimal evidence that business education has been updating its curriculum and student

learning outcomes to incorporate what is expected.

This multi-phase research provides both evidence and direction to those who are

responsible for establishing cutting edge curriculum that serves the market and our students’

academic and professional goals.

This leads to our research goal of understanding what business educators can do to prepare

graduates for success in the workplace. The integration of coaching skills, knowledge, and

disposition emerged as a needed component in business education.

Future Research

The next step in this research plan is to conduct in-depth interviews with twelve (12)

graduates who have earned an MBA between 5-15 years ago. They hold the power and gift of

experience. These post-MBA graduates have risen to levels of leadership authority yet can reflect

back on the educational journey from their past. In this next stage of the research, their experiences

will be mined as they reflect and share as to how (and if) their MBA programs prepared them for

the business world. We can draw from their experiences and insights to further improve

management education for future students.

Acknowledgements

Time is often our most precious asset. I acknowledge all of the management faculty who

generously shared their time to explore this topic. Though I wish to publicly thank them,

confidentiality was promised and delivered. I also acknowledge the support of my graduate

assistants, Ms. Sarah Berg (MBA candidate) and Ms. Daniella Collura (MBA).

 
JABE 42 
 
 
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APPENDIX

Schedule of Interview Questions

✓ What is your teaching focus?

✓ Does your college integrate coaching skills, knowledge, or practice into the curriculum?

✓ What is your familiarity with the coaching process as compared to mentoring, consulting, and

therapy?

✓ The professional coaching industry is growing. What is your opinion as a management

professor on the potential benefit and/or risk of integrating coaching skills, theories, and

knowledge, into college-level management education?

✓ What can Business Educators DO to better prepare business graduates to:

o contribute to a coaching culture

o use coaching skills and knowledge in their development of others

o be prepared to be coached as they rise through the organization?

✓ What would you need to know or learn to be prepared to teach and/or support coaching skills

and knowledge at the college-level?

JABE 45

TRANSFORMING FUTURE BUSINESS LEADERS

THROUGH EXPERIENTIAL AND SERVICE LEARNING

Kellie L. Playter

Concordia University Irvine

School of Business & Economics

1530 Concordia West

Irvine, CA 92612

kellie.p[email protected]

Tammie L. Burkhart

Concordia University Irvine

School of Business & Economics

1530 Concordia West

Irvine, CA 92612

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

College students today are primarily composed of Generation Z. While they are ethnically diverse

and technologically sophisticated, they are regarded as lacking many skills and work experience

needed to be successful in today’s job market. The National Association of Colleges and

Employers (NACE), contends employers are looking for college graduates with eight main

competencies that make them career ready. This paper will show how one university’s School of

Business and Economics’ department is transforming and preparing future business leaders

through experiential and service learning opportunities, specifically a robust required internship

program and a unique service group called ENACTUS (Entrepreneurial Action Us), so students

can practice and demonstrate all eight NACE competencies in a global context.

JABE 46

A recent study found that 40% of business leaders believe recent college graduates are

unprepared to enter the workforce (Intelligent, 2023). In addition, as the cost of higher education

has risen, scrutiny on graduate outcomes has also increased. As such, the National Association of

Colleges and Employers (NACE) (2022) contends that the construct of career readiness is the

solution. Career readiness is described as helping college students develop the skills considered

critical for beginning a career (NACE, 2022). To better prepare future business leaders, Concordia

University Irvine’s School of Business and Economics is transforming students through

experiential and service learning opportunities to help better equip them for their future workplaces

and make them career ready. This paper will review college student’s current demographics,

characteristics, and needs and what employers are looking for. Then, taking a theory to practice

approach, two programs will be shown to help students meet these career readiness competencies.

We believe that requiring students to complete an internship in their emphasis and providing

students with the opportunity to mentor entrepreneurs in impoverished countries uniquely prepares

students and business leaders to collaborate to create a better world.

CURRENT STUDENT DEMOGRAPHICS

The majority of students at universities today belong to Generation Z. People in this

generation were born roughly between 1995-2010 (Ganguli et al., 2022). This is considered one

of the most ethnically diverse and technologically sophisticated generations to date (Ivanovska et

al., 2017). Students of this generation have been heavily influenced by technology. Generation Z

utilizes technological advancements to their personal benefit and seek out more significant

innovation, knowledge, creativity, and multicultural skills (Peres & Mesquita, 2018). This

generation also heavily relies on the internet and technology (Al-Asfour & Lettau, 2014). For

example, they use YouTube and Google to learn new skills and to be more independent in the

workplace (Lev, 2021). While previous generations often had to seek help from another person,

this generation can simply “Google it.” Furthermore, social media technologies and platforms are

often the center of their social world, making this generation inclined to substitute face-to-face

relationships for digital communication (Ivanovska et al., 2017).

The qualities of Generation Z can pose some challenges for colleges and employers. For

example, this generation is said to lack many soft skills. These skills include time management

and organization of work and cooperating with others (Peres & Mesquita, 2018). Additionally,

because they rely so much on technology, they are said to lack critical thinking and problem-

solving abilities (Macovei & Martinescu-Bădălan, 2022). On a personal level, they are considered

more individualistic than previous generations (Ivanovska et al., 2017), too direct and often harsh

in their digital communication (Macovei & Martinescu-Bădălan, 2022), and have short attention

spans and expect instant answers and information (Shatto & Erwin, 2016). Most notably, this

generation lacks the entry level work experience that many get from a part-time job at a younger

age (Lev, 2021). This is also due to the COVID-19 impact and the lockdowns this generation faced

(Tidhar, 2022).

While there are challenges with this generation, there are also several opportunities

colleges and employers can capitalize on. For instance, this generation is eager to learn practical

workplace skills in college (Thier, 2023). As previously mentioned, this generation is also

technologically savvy and wants to be useful. According to Miller and Mills (2019), today

JABE 47

“students have technology at the center of their everyday lives, are accustomed to and comfortable

with a diverse world, and are driven by a desire for a helpful, responsive, practical educational

environment that will enable them to succeed in future careers” (p. 80). Therefore, this generation

is eager to learn and contribute to their workplaces and the world around them.

Generation Z is eager to learn practical workplace skills. Students do not want to waste

time on knowledge that will not be beneficial to their future career plans, they want knowledge

that can be used in a real-world setting. Practical workplace skills may include lessons on coding

language within a STEM class or the use of ChatGPT in a philosophy discussion (Thier, 2023).

According to Capranos and Magda (2023), students are at odds with potential employers because

of the skills gap – “a significant disparity between the skills needed to achieve their goals and their

workforce’s capabilities” (p. 5). These employers are preferring candidates with digital badges and

certificates rather than a college degree. These types of achievements are a win-win for students

and employers; students have a tangible benefit for doing the work and employers are getting the

skills needed for their positions (Capranos & Magda, 2023).

Knowing that skills need to be updated regularly, organizations are offering employees

tuition reimbursement to keep up with the changing tech environment. Research shows that hard

skills have a shelf life of less than two years (Capranos & Magda, 2023). Those hard skills that are

in demand include analytics, digital communication, and project management. By collaborating

with universities, organizations can continuously update their training curricula and keep the

organization’s skills gap from widening (Capranos & Magda, 2023). Generation Z students also

say they struggle with retaining the material learned in the classroom. If students know that their

university is collaborating with one of their potential employers, they have an added incentive to

prioritize their classroom experiences and give everything they must retaining it (Thier, 2023).

Some educational institutions have strategically partnered with employers to find out

exactly what skills organizations are looking for from recent college graduates to better equip them

in their curriculum and experiential efforts during their time at college. One such organization that

has emerged from this partnership is NACE. NACE (2024) contends they are “the leading source

of information on the employment of the college educated, and forecasts hiring and trends in the

job market; tracks starting salaries, recruiting and hiring practices, and student attitudes and

outcomes; and identifies best practices and benchmarks” (“About us” section). Therefore, the next

section will review the competencies NACE has identified as desired by employers.

EMPLOYER NEEDS - NACE COMPETENCIES

The National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) has identified eight career

readiness competencies that college students should acquire to be ready for employment,

regardless of area of study (NACE, 2022). These competencies can be demonstrated in a variety

of ways through curricular and extracurricular activities. These competencies include: (a) Career

& Self-Development; (b) Communication; (c) Critical Thinking; (d) Equity & Inclusion; (e)

Leadership; (f) Professionalism; (g) Teamwork; (h) Technology.

JABE 48

Career & Self-Development

According to NACE (2022), career and self-development is described as “proactively

develop oneself and one’s career through continual personal and professional learning, awareness

of one’s strengths and weaknesses, navigation of career opportunities, and networking to build

relationships within and without one’s organization” (p. 10). Students spend a significant amount

of time in the classroom developing skills that can be used in their career. Skills that range from

highly technical to more general communication and soft skills. Some of this class time is devoted

to self-development by assessing their strengths and weaknesses through personality and skill

building exercises. Awareness of these strengths and weaknesses will allow students to be

proactive in choosing a good fit for a career.

Continuous learning is another attribute that higher education needs to focus on.

Employers want employees to arrive in new roles ready to connect with and inspire others, build

relationships, and grow their network, and take charge of their own career and professional

development (Andreau et al., 2020). Teaching students how to adequately assess their learning

and skills development also needs to be emphasized so they will want to continue growth in their

field. Therefore, students who demonstrate competency in career and self-development show an

awareness of their own strengths and areas for growth, apply feedback, develop career goals, self-

advocate, display curiosity, build relationships, embrace opportunities for development, and

voluntarily participate in further training or professional events.

Communication

Effective written and oral communication skills are crucial for students entering the

workforce. According to NACE (2022), communication is defined as “clearly and effectively

exchange information, ideas, facts, and perspectives with persons inside and outside of an

organization” (p. 10). Effective communication skills are the driving force of success in business,

they are tools that need practice in the right context to ensure competence for the workforce (Al-

Musalli, 2019). In addition, students who demonstrate effective communication understand the

importance, employ active listening, are respectful to others, ask appropriate questions, and seek

guidance when needed (NACE, 2022).

According to Al-Musalli (2019) “The choices of what to teach in communication courses

should be based on a rigorous annual needs analysis of what the job market requires” (p. 18).

Cooperation with companies that are hiring students from a particular university would provide

guidance needed for the best communication demands and preferences. In addition, both written

and verbal skills curriculum should be reevaluated to allow for changes in current practice and

form. While companies use various methods to communicate with their employees and customers,

students must be prepared to communicate effectively, being mindful that companies operate and

communicate differently (Al-Musalli, 2019).

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking skills are crucial in order to solve problems and make informed decisions.

Critical thinking is a process and a commitment to using reason in the formulation of beliefs

(Mulnix, 2012). According to NACE (2022), critical thinking means employees can “identify and

JABE 49

respond to needs based upon an understanding of situational context and logical analysis of

relevant information” (p. 11). Students who demonstrate critical thinking make decisions based on

sound reasoning and judgment, gather information from multiple sources, are proactive, accurately

summarize and interpret data, effectively communicate actions and rationale, and multitask

effectively (NACE 2022).

Although some students view that critical thinking as more of an abstract concept, it is

important to engage in dialogue about critical thinking skills in their discipline and highlight

opportunities to make connections between different contexts (Forbes, 2018). Providing

opportunities for practice should be spread across coursework and weaved into presentations and

discussions. Opportunities such as reflecting on a student’s own work and providing detailed

feedback about the work of classmates. Adding one’s own opinion of the evaluation and criticism

of the work of others can be used as practice in developing critical thinking skills (Forbes, 2018).

Equity & Inclusion

The ability to be equitable and inclusive is increasingly essential in today’s workplace.

Employers want employees who can work well with diverse others and be open to a variety of

viewpoints. As such, NACE (2022) defines equity and inclusion as the ability to “demonstrate the

awareness, attitude, knowledge, and skills required to equitably engage and include people from

different local and global cultures. Engage in anti-racist practices that actively challenge the

systems, structures, and policies of racism” (p. 12). Students who demonstrate competence in

equity and inclusion solicit feedback from multiple cultural perspectives, advocate for inclusion

and equity, seek global cross-cultural interactions, are open minded, and demonstrate flexibility

by adapting to diverse environments (NACE, 2022).

Students can be exposed to equity and inclusion in a variety of ways. For example, students

are encouraged to study abroad, serve their communities, learn about other cultures, and be open

to other viewpoints. Students are often tasked with working in groups and reading various case

studies involving these concepts. Overall, these skills are essential for business success because

they promote more innovation and creativity, attract more talent and diverse skills, increase

productivity, and lead to happier employees (Cole, 2020). Therefore, students must learn to

embrace equity and inclusion and build this competence for success in today’s workplace.

Leadership

NACE (2022) found that employers have increasingly ranked the value of leadership

among new employees as important. Even when students work in entry-level positions, they often

work in teams and therefore, need leadership skills to effectively collaborate with others. In

addition, Petriglieri and DeRue (n.d.) argue that leaders are not the finished product of any single

institution because leadership is an ongoing learning process that lasts a lifetime and business

school should help them to recognize this. Therefore, NACE (2022) defines leadership as the

ability to “recognize and capitalize on personal and team strengths to achieve organizational goals”

(p. 12). Students with strong leadership abilities can inspire, persuade, and motivate others, are

innovative and seek feedback, serve as models to others, build trust, and can effectively plan and

execute a project (NACE, 2022).

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Leadership courses acknowledge that students need experiential learning as part of their

higher education coursework but sometimes struggle with meaningful opportunities and ethical

leadership examples. According to Andreau et al. (2020), “leadership is about challenging the

status quo and pursuing change in response to dynamic environments” (p. 136). Faculty can

encourage students to seek out leadership opportunities and assign group work or projects that

assist in developing leadership skills in students (Boles et al., 2019). Emphasizing the development

of leadership skills improves the job readiness of students and their marketability in the workplace

(Andreu et al., 2020). Moreover, employees will be fully engaged in their work if they have an

ethical leader to provide the environment and opportunity because ethical leaders inspire

employees and provide the freedom for employees to take initiative (Engelbrecht et al, 2014).

Professionalism

According to NACE (2022), professionalism is hard to define and deeply embedded in

individual work cultures. Therefore, professionalism is “knowing work environments differ

greatly, understand and demonstrate effective work habits, and act in the interest of the larger

community and workplace” (p. 13). Professionalism is taught in the classroom in a variety of ways

such as student decorum, punctuality, and preparedness. In addition, Boles et al., (2019) argued

that students gain understanding of the expectations in their field when faculty members bring

industry representatives and recruiters on campus to serve as guest speakers, role-play as buyers,

mentor students, and participate in mock interview sessions.

Showing competence in professionalism means acting with integrity and accountability,

maintaining alignment between organizational and personal values, being present and prepared,

dependable, completing tasks, meeting, and exceeding goals, paying attention to details, and

showing dedication to the position (NACE, 2022). Collaborating with recruiters, students, and

faculty helps students better understand the requirements of certain jobs and recruiter expectations

when interviewing for a position (Boles et al., 2019). Students directly benefit from opportunities

to interact with guest speakers, company representatives at campus events, and lectures and

professional events. When students meet with recruiters and other professionals, they receive input

on what it means to be a competent professional, how to effectively manage time, and ways to

continue their education to have a success in their career (Andreau, et al., 2020).

Teamwork

Regardless of whether employees work remotely or in person, much of today’s work is

reliant on teamwork and collaboration. Moreover, among the soft skills consistently reported to be

desired by employers, teamwork is consistently at the top of the list (NACE, 2022; Schartel Dunn

et al., 2021). Therefore, NACE (2022) defines teamwork as the ability to “build and maintain

collaborative relationships to work effectively toward common goals, while appreciating diverse

viewpoints and shared responsibilities” (p. 13). Some behaviors that demonstrate teamwork

include listening carefully to others, managing conflict, being accountable for team and individual

responsibilities, using strengths to compliment team members, compromising, collaborating, and

building strong relationships (NACE, 2022).

Since teamwork skills are desired by most organizations today, having repeated

opportunities to develop team skills strengthens business students’ abilities (Schartel Dunn et al.,

JABE 51

2021). Teaching strategies will help students be able to approach teamwork and communicate in a

team setting. Practicing these strategies will help students identify strong and weak teamwork

characteristics and grow as an effective team player. Most importantly, teamwork skills include

providing clear and constructive feedback so the team can learn and improve (Schartel Dunn et al.,

2021).

Technology

Today, technology is ubiquitous in both education and the workplace. As such, NACE

(2022) describes how students entering the workforce must “understand and leverage technologies

ethically to enhance efficiencies, complete tasks, and accomplish goals” (p. 14). The use and type

of technology will vary according to a student’s career path, so it is important to gain exposure to

various technologies in college. Technology when used for teaching has motivated and enhanced

students’ experience and motivated their passion for learning (Bryant & Hunton, 2000).

Competence in technology means navigating change and being open to new technologies, using

technology to improve productivity, using appropriate technology for the task at hand, and

managing technology for decision making and achieving strategic goals (NACE, 2022).

Different jobs use different types of ever-changing technology. For instance, accounting

students would use different types of technology than other business majors. “In the recent past,

the typical delivery of the audit was document-checklist driven. Cloud and other technologies,

notably AI and data analytics, have allowed for the audit to be delivered more efficiently and

effectively” (Dennis & Jenkins, 2024, para. 6). While many of the same fundamentals exist in

teaching, how the deliverable is provided using different technologies also needs to be reviewed

in the classroom.

APPLICATION

All eight of these competencies have proven valuable to college students as they prepare

for their future careers. In the School of Business and Economics at Concordia University Irvine,

students are prepared for their workplaces in a variety of ways both inside and outside of the

classroom. Two programs that focus on experiential and service learning will be highlighted to

illustrate how students are being transformed into future business leaders and gaining valuable

career readiness skills in all eight competencies. Using the NACE competencies to enhance their

hard skills, students can learn how to apply classroom experience to real world projects. Strategic

thinking and analytics, digital communication and project management are applied in different

ways through student internships, service learning projects and entrepreneurial projects done with

microloans. Students also get to practice their soft skills such as professionalism, teamwork,

communication, and leadership through job interviews, internship projects, and their review of

loans and travel abroad. More of this will be addressed in the following sections.

Experiential Learning

Experiential learning is one way to prepare students for their future careers. According to

Ludlow (2010), “experiential learning is an umbrella concept that includes many varieties of

JABE 52

hands-on learning activities, including laboratory experiments, kinetic learning activities,

professional internships, and course-related fieldwork” (p. 45). Some of the benefits of experiential

learning for students includes nurturing collaboration, discovering new skills, enhancing

communication, promoting deeper understanding, growth, self-esteem, personal responsibility,

and sense of purpose (McDonald, 2020). One type of experiential learning opportunity that

Concordia University Irvine’s School of Business and Economics requires is internships.

According to a recent Gallup poll, only four in 10 college students seeking a bachelor’s

degree have had internship experience and that number drops even lower if it is a first-generation

college student or a student attending a public university (Marken & Curtis, 2023). Internships are

beneficial to both students and employers. Students who complete internships receive twice as

many job offers as students who do not complete internships (Marken & Curtis, 2023; VanDerziel,

2023). In addition, employers often extend interns full-time job offers and see a much higher

retention rate on employees who started as an intern and then moved into full-time employment

post-graduation (VanDerziel, 2023). Additionally, Di Meglio et al. (2020) found internships were

able to open doors to the labor market, make the process from graduation to working full-time

much smoother, and reduced the time it took for students to find their first job. Students also

develop contacts and networking skills during the internship which can help them establish

references and connections and improve productivity and beginning salaries at the start of a

student’s career (Lei et al, 2019). Employers also value seeing an internship on a resume because

they know the prospective employee has had some real experience and can answer questions

relating to that experience (Di Meglio et at., 2020). Because of the importance of internships,

Concordia has made internships a requirement for all students in the School of Business and

Economics.

Internships. Students majoring in business at Concordia have had the opportunity to learn

workplace skills, professionalism, and organizational culture while doing an internship. Practical

knowledge that is gained with hands-on experience gives students additional knowledge beyond

coursework. Concordia’s robust internship program can be divided into three phases: pre-

internship assignments and coaching, fieldwork, and post-internship evaluation and reflection. In

the first phase, students focus on personal reflection and opportunities for development. Students

must take the Strengths Finder 2.0 Assessment and reflect on their top five themes in a reflection

paper to better understand themselves and what they have to offer to an organization. Next, they

prepare professional documents such as a resume, LinkedIn profile, and create a Handshake

account. These help them reflect on their past experience, and what steps they need to take to

achieve their career objectives. The resume is reviewed, and feedback is provided before they share

it with employers. They also receive coaching and the opportunity to practice their interviewing

and networking skills. This phase aligns with the NACE competencies of career and self-

development, communication, professionalism, and technology. In the second phase, students

must actually apply, interview, obtain a job, and work in the industry related to their field of study.

For instance, students who major in marketing should complete a sales or marketing internship,

while accounting students must find a position in an accounting firm or payroll department.

Regardless, students must gain approval from the internship director before starting any fieldwork

to make sure it aligns with their major and their personal career objectives. In addition, they are

required to work a minimum of 80 hours in the field. During this time, students are asked to

complete a monthly progress report detailing the projects and assignments they have completed

and tracking their hours. They are encouraged to seek opportunities that will expose them to a

JABE 53

variety of skills to maximize their time and learning. During this phase, students gain experience

in all eight of NACE’s Career Competencies.

The third and final phase of internship is about evaluation and self-reflection. Students

obtain an evaluation from their supervisor on their skills and areas for growth, students complete

an evaluation on the site/supervisor, students write a reflection paper reviewing how they

experienced the eight NACE competencies in the field and what they learned. For example, for

career and self-development many students talk about the projects they were able to work on and

their overall growth. For communication students usually address which channels they used to

communicate with their team and supervisor and how frequently. For critical thinking students

usually reflect on something that challenged them and how they overcame it. For equity and

inclusion students write about working with people who are different than themselves and how

they managed that. For leadership students usually address their relationship with their direct

supervisor and what they learned (or did not learn) from them. Professionalism topics range from

clothing to how to write an email to how to interact with clients and varies across industries, but

most student state that they learn more about how to act in “the real world.” Most students get the

opportunity to work in a team, whether in person or remotely, so they reflect on the pros and cons

of that. Lastly, students address which technology platforms they were able to use during their

internship. Finally, the students complete an exit interview with the internship director to reflect

on the experience, transferable skills, and next steps. Clearly, this final phase addresses all eight

of NACE’s Career Competencies and provides them with references and feedback for future career

development and opportunities.

Through this experiential learning process students are able to prepare themselves for their

future career by learning essential skills, making mistakes, building connections, developing their

self-confidence, and bridging the gap between the classroom and the field. Many students learn

valuable skills that help them determine their next steps in career development, some receive job

offers, and others decide that they might want to pursue a different career field altogether.

Regardless, they all describe the internship experience as valuable.

Service Learning

Service learning is a distinct form of experiential learning that emphasizes “mutually

beneficial partnerships” (Finley & Bowen, 2021, p. xvi). In addition, Turk and Pearl (2021)

contend that service learning is a mutually beneficial community-based experience that combines

academic rigor and high-impact student learning outcomes as well as critical reflection to tie the

two together. This also ties into the concept of student philanthropy. According to Jacoby (1996),

student philanthropy is a form of experiential education in which students engage in activities that

address human and community needs together and provides opportunities for student learning and

development. Overall, this type of learning is meant to advance the civic mission of higher

education, expand student learning, and enrich partnerships with communities (Ti et al., 2021).

Service learning allows students to experience and reflect on different behavioral strategies

where they can try out concepts they have learned in the classroom in a low-stakes environment.

“These activities provide students with life-changing experiences, leading to a better

understanding of self and confidence in their ability to make an impact on others and the world”

(Andreau et al., 2020, p. 137). Direct interaction with others outside the student’s normal scope

gives them the ability to see things differently and analyze situations they have never experienced.

JABE 54

“Service-learning pedagogy can not only help customize and contextualize instruction for students,

it can help integrate greater student support within instruction, and through student reflection

exercises, help instructors to proactively monitor and provide feedback to students” (Turk & Pearl,

2021, p. 93). It is important to continue to practice what students have learned in the classroom to

improve skills and become more confident in their approach.

As the concept of service learning is becoming more prevalent around the globe, “the

challenge is not only offering more and better service-learning courses by also institutionalizing

service-learning, which goes beyond changing the curriculum on a course-by-course basis and

includes institutional and organizational change” (Ti et al., 2021, p. 7). Service learning needs to

be an integral part of the overall institution’s mission. At Concordia, each semester all students

are invited to participate in Concordia Serves, a day where classes are canceled, and students

participate in giving back to the community. In addition, several mission trips are planned each

year, services are donated to the community and donations are made to community partners for a

common cause. In the School of Business and Economics, a philanthropic club called ENACTUS

is funded to assist in both local and underserved communities around the world.

ENACTUS. Entrepreneurial Action Us (ENACTUS) is an organization that seeks to ignite

business innovation to make a positive social impact that allows students and business leaders to

collaborate to create a better world. Students are able to participate in the ongoing micro-loan

program in partnership with a missionary organization in the Philippines. In addition, students are

able to create their own “give-back” project where they can benefit local organizations, nonprofits

and churches.

With the goal of students being able to practice what they have learned in the classroom in

mind, ENACTUS developed a micro-loan program. In this program, students go through the

process of using classroom and textbook theories and apply them to real world business plans from

an entrepreneur seeking start-up funds. Each business plan is analyzed using tools that determine

financial viability and assess the market needs. Through the interview phase students ask questions

regarding the business plan and interact with the sponsors that work with the entrepreneurs in the

Philippines. Students then provide feedback on the business plans, offering assistance and

encouragement. Business plan(s) that best align with our goal of loan repayment are then chosen.

Since we receive an average of twelve business plans each semester, students use project

management skills to plan determine the viability of the business and the likelihood of repayment.

They then figure out what they can loan from their annual budget and how they will provide

support to the applicants. They figure the best way to communicate with the prospective borrowers

and begin a dialogue using social media, internet meetings, etc. This aligns with the NACE

competencies of career and self-development, communication, and critical thinking.

Once the micro-loans are funded, students have the opportunity to work with entrepreneurs

or their sponsors to give guidance, provide encouragement, and track the results of the business

through loan repayment. Students are set up either individually or in groups to mentor

entrepreneurs via phone, text, or Zoom. ENACTUS leaders work with the groups to evaluate

progress throughout the first few months of funding the loan. Using social media such as blogs

and Facebook pages, students can see how the entrepreneur is doing on a day-to-day basis and

provide encouragement and support. At the end of the semester, students take a trip to the

Philippines to see their work firsthand. This aligns with the NACE competencies of leadership,

teamwork, professionalism, and technology.

JABE 55

Once the Philippines trip has been set, students work on creating workshops and

presentations for each day of the trip that will assist current and future entrepreneurs in their

business endeavors. Students conduct business plan workshops, loan repayment workshops,

business plan Q & A sessions and are available to assist future business plan owners who need

assistance in getting their ideas on paper. In addition, students will visit with loan recipients at

their place of business and meet the owners they have been working with over the previous few

months. This aligns with the NACE competencies of career and self-development, leadership,

critical thinking, communication, and professionalism. Overall, this program is just one more way

that students are able to serve their global community while also gaining valuable and practical

career experience.

CONCLUSION

Experiential and service learning clearly have many benefits for students as they prepare

for their future careers. Internships and ENACTUS are just a few ways Concordia University

Irvine’s School of Business and Economics is preparing and transforming future business leaders

to help them gain essential skills they need during college, help fill the deficits they experienced

because of COVID and their reliance on technology and help fulfill their strong desire to give back

to their local and global communities, so they can excel in their future careers across various

industries. These opportunities go beyond textbook instruction to help students learn, demonstrate,

and hopefully excel in the eight career readiness competencies outlined by NACE. Students must

learn and gain skills outside of the classroom in safe and supportive environments where they can

learn, fail, grow, make connections, and give back so they are more equipped to be successful

global business leaders of the future.

JABE 56

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GMS, COACHES AND PLAYERS:

MANAGEMENT LESSONS FROM SPORTS

Ronald L. Moy

St. John’s University

Tobin College of Business

Department of Economics and Finance

300 Howard Avenue

Staten Island, NY 10301

[email protected]

Ralph A. Terregrossa

St. John’s University

Tobin College of Business

Department of Economics and Finance

300 Howard Avenue

Staten Island, NY 10301

[email protected]

Sylvia D. Clark

St. John’s University

Tobin College of Business

Department of Marketing

300 Howard Avenue

Staten Island, NY 10301

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Leaders in sports and business face challenges in their fields. CEOs face the challenge of

maximizing the firm's value, whereas coaches are tasked with winning championships. Despite

these differences, good management practices can help each to reach their goals. In this paper, we

use examples from sports to illustrate different management issues facing businesses. Sports

presents interesting cases for students to study because, unlike the rest of the business world, where

matters such as hiring, firings, and mentoring occur behind closed doors, many of these issues

occur in a very public forum in sports. This allows instructors to engage students with essential

concepts in management using real-world examples from sports.

JABE 59

INTRODUCTION

Sports in the U.S. and around the world is a multibillion-dollar industry. Numerous books

have been written on the business of sports [see Conrad (2017), Harrow, Burton, and Krzyzewski

(2019)]. These books tend to look at the economics and structure of various sports. Sports are an

interesting industry to study and provide valuable lessons for understanding business in general.

One of the unique characteristics of sports like baseball, basketball, and American football is that

sports franchises face many of the same issues that non-sports businesses encounter. The

difference is that these issues, which play out behind closed doors in most industries, usually play

out in public, often in real-time, in many sports. Another advantage of sports is that seasons have

clear endpoints that allow us to evaluate how the team performed for that season, and each season

stands alone in gauging the success or failure of the team. For example, a team that wins a

championship once every five years and finishes last the other four is likely a success. In contrast,

a company that posts extraordinary earnings once every five years and losses in the other four is

not.

In this paper, several sports are used, most notably American football, to illustrate various

challenges faced in the business world. Football is employed for many issues because unique

characteristics like the coaching hierarchy, salary cap, and importance of one player, the

quarterback, make it uniquely suited for discussing hiring practices, mentorship, and succession

planning.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE (NFL)

Professional football teams provide a structure like that of other businesses. Consider the

hierarchy of the coaching staff. Here, the head coach serves as the CEO of the team, with assistant

coaches assigned clear titles and responsibilities. The offensive and defensive coordinators

prepare the game plans for their respective sides of the ball and usually call the plays on game day.

These coordinators supervise a staff of assistant coaches, much like a CFO supervises the

company’s treasurer and controller. For example, an offensive coordinator will likely have several

position coaches he supervises, such as running back, wide receiver, and offensive line coaches.

In other sports, like basketball and soccer, the assistant coaches do not have clearly defined titles,

and responsibilities will differ depending on the head coaches’ preference.

Every year, roughly 20 percent of the NFL’s 32 teams seek new head coaches. Potential

head coaches are generally drawn from previous head coaches and offensive and defensive

coordinators. In addition, prospective candidates tend to be widely reported in the media,

including when they will be interviewed and often the interview's success. Therefore, football

provides numerous examples of hiring practices by teams akin to hiring practices used by

businesses.

Unlike basketball and soccer (excluding the goalie), professional football includes several

specialized jobs handled by one person whose sole responsibility is that task. For example, the

kicker is responsible for kickoffs, extra points, and field goals, the punter for punting the ball on

fourth down, a long snapper for snapping the ball on kicks and punts, and a quarterback who directs

the offense.

JABE 60

The success of any organization requires the coordinated effort of an entire workforce.

However, the quarterback is critically important in football because he touches the ball on every

offensive play. Many teams with excellent players on offense and defense flounder because they

cannot find a competent quarterback.

Case 1 - Peyton Manning

Consider the Indianapolis Colts during Hall of Famer Peyton Manning’s career with the team.

For his entire career, the team averaged 10.8 wins per year (from 1998 to 2010). In his final nine

seasons with the Colts from 2002 to 2010, the team never had a losing season and averaged 12.1

wins per season. Yet, in 2011, when Manning missed the entire season due to injury, the team

won a mere 2 games.

Quarterbacks also make for an interesting performance study because numerous statistics are

commonly reported, such as completion percentage, yards per passing attempt, touchdown passes,

interceptions, and passing yards per game.

MANAGEMENT LESSONS FROM SPORTS

In the U.S., the vernacular of sports has become commonplace in business because sports

have become such a large part of American culture. References to sports like “knocking it out of

the park” or “fumbling the ball” are commonly heard from business executives. However, sports

provide more than colorful phrases that can be used to liven up a business meeting; it furnishes

valuable lessons that students can apply to any business.

Human Resources

Hiring practices, mentorship, and succession planning are critical in every type of business.

However, these matters play out privately in most companies with little fanfare. Even hiring a

Fortune 500 CEO, arguably the face of the company, tends to be handled quietly away from public

scrutiny. Although the names of some potential candidates may emerge, information about the

process tends to be limited. In addition, CEO positions at top companies open relatively

infrequently. Contrast this with the process of hiring an NFL head coach. Approximately 20

percent of teams are looking to hire a new head coach each year. In the NFL, the names of potential

candidates, former head coaches, and high-level assistant coaches, such as offensive and defensive

coordinators, are usually reported by sports analysts in the media. As a result, not only are the

candidates known, but interviews of candidates tend to be widely reported. Reporting of

interviewing candidates is essential because of an NFL requirement known as the Rooney Rule,

named after Dan Rooney, the former owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers and chairman of the diversity

committee. The Rule, which began in 2003, requires each team to interview minority candidates

for certain coaching and front-office positions to promote diversity. Over the years, the Rule has

been modified to include additional coaching positions and interviewing women for front office

positions. [see NFL Operations, n.d.] The Rooney Rule has come under criticism for not realizing

its objective of improving diversity in the coaching ranks and the front offices of NFL teams.

However, this rule provides an opportunity to discuss improving diversity in all businesses.

JABE 61

Leadership

Leadership is critical to the success of any organization. In the seventies, Lee Iacocca

rescued Chrysler, a firm on the verge of bankruptcy, leading them to profitability. In the nineties,

Louis Gerstner, a successful executive at American Express, was able to lead a turnaround for

computer giant IBM. In business, there can be many successful companies within a single

industry. Even when companies are in the same market, several firms can thrive. For example,

Netflix and Hulu can succeed in the streaming industry, as can Walmart and Amazon in retailing.

In sports, there is only one definition of success: winning a championship, which leaves only one

successful coach and team at the end of the season. Although sports franchises can prosper

financially, their fans and the media view teams that fail to win championships as failures.

Consider the two most valuable sports franchises in the U.S., the Dallas Cowboys at $9 billion and

the New York Yankees at $7.1 billion [see Lu, 2024]. The Yankees have won a record 27 World

Series titles, more than double the second-winningest franchise, the St. Louis Cardinals, with

eleven. However, the Yankees have not appeared in a World Series since their last championship

in 2009. This has led Yankee’s ownership, fans, and the media to view the last decade as a failure.

Similarly, the Cowboys have had a storied history, winning five Super Bowls, trailing only the

“New England Patriots and Pittsburgh Steelers six apiece,” yet have not appeared in a Super Bowl

in nearly three decades. This championship drought has left fans and the media critical of the

Cowboys, with almost no one praising their financial success. Because many owners define

success as winning a championship, successful managers and coaches are often fired as team

owners search for someone to lead the team to that elusive championship. In other cases, coaches

may leave the profession for health reasons or mental burnout, only to return after an absence from

the game. This allows us to study leaders who have had success leading several organizations.

Case 2 - Dick Vermeil and Andy Reid

The Philadelphia Eagles hired Vermeil in 1976 to turn around a franchise that had not had a

winning season in a decade. During his tenure in Philadelphia, Vermeil led the team to four

playoff appearances, including a trip to the Super Bowl in 1980. After the 1982 season, Vermeil

left the game due to burnout. After a 15-year absence, Vermeil returned to coaching, leading the

St. Louis Rams to a Super Bowl victory in his third season. Vermeil would lead the Kansas City

Chiefs from 2001 to 2005, shepherding them to first place in their division in 2003.

The Philadelphia Eagles hired Reid in 1999. During his 14 years as head coach, he led them to

nine playoff appearances, including five consecutive conference championship games and a trip

to the Super Bowl. Because Reid was unable to bring a championship to Philadelphia, the team

released him in 2012. Following his departure from the Eagles, the Kansas City Chiefs hired

him as head coach. As coach of the Chiefs, Reid led the team to ten playoff appearances in his

first eleven seasons, including four trips to the Super Bowl and three victories.

Vermeil and Reid were able to turn around multiple franchises, indicating their ability to

lead and change an organization’s culture in multiple circumstances. Unfortunately, this is much

harder to observe in business because successful CEOs usually remain with the same company.

JABE 62

Coaches and managers are tasked with motivating and training players and developing

game-day strategies. On the other hand, a team’s general manager (GM) is responsible for

recognizing and recruiting talented players. This can include finding players whom the market

undervalues and who fit the city’s and the team’s culture. Some GMs are better than others at this

job. Consider the case of Theo Epstein.

Case 3 - Theo Epstein

The Boston Red Sox had a storied history, winning five World Series from 1901 to 1918. At

the end of the 1919 season, the Red Sox owner, Harry Frazee was having financial difficulties

and sold the rights to Babe Ruth to the New York Yankees for the unprecedented sum of $100k.

This began what baseball enthusiasts sometimes refer to as the “Curse of the Bambino.” From

Ruth’s departure to 2000, the Red Sox went to four World Series, winning none, while the

Yankees played in 39 World Series, winning 26.

In 2001, Boston hired Theo Epstein and appointed him general manager at the end of the 2002

season. After rebuilding the roster, the Red Sox won their first World Series in 2004, 86 years

after their last victory. Epstein left the team at the end of the 2005 season, but the team and

culture he built remained as the Red Sox would win the World Series in 2007, 2013 and 2018.

On October 12, 2011, Epstein returned to baseball as president of the Chicago Cubs, another

team with a long history of World Series disappointments. In 2016, after several years of

rebuilding, the Cubs won their first World Series since 1908.

The Peter Principle

The Peter Principle is a management concept first proposed by Lawrence J. Peter [Hull and

Peter (2020)] that states that people get promoted to their level of incompetence. That is,

competent individuals doing a good job get promoted to the next level in the organization, and the

promotions continue until that person can no longer do the job, which is their level of

incompetence. In many ways, getting promoted to a level of incompetence is unfair because

competent people do not become incompetent when they are promoted. Rather, the problem stems

from jobs requiring different skill sets that the newly promoted individual may not possess. For

example, a great auto mechanic may be highly skilled at repairing cars but may not have the skills

required of a service manager, which will likely include managing a garage full of mechanics,

dealing with customers, and handling paperwork. Research by Benson, Li and Shue (2019) on

sales workers from a large number of firms indicates that firms are aware of the tradeoff of

promoting individuals based on past performance but recognize the motivational value of

promoting high performers. Some tech firms are also trying to deal with this by rewarding top

performers with enhanced titles, and commensurate pay raises while allowing them to remain in

positions where they thrive.

In the NFL, candidates for head coach are often drawn from the ranks of successful

offensive and defensive coordinators. Successful coordinators’ names tend to be bantered about

during each new hiring cycle after the regular season ends. Some of these coordinators will go on

to great success, while many will be outright failures in their new position. The issue is not a lack

JABE 63

of competence but the reality that running an entire team differs from coordinating the offense or

the defense. Coordinators focus on their side of the ball by preparing game plans and calling plays

on game day. This requires a mastery of the game and its strategies. Contrast this with the duties

of the head coach, who is tasked with running the entire team. Many of these tasks have little to

do with game day strategy, such as human resources, including managing the roster, dealing with

personal problems players may encounter, setting practice schedules, and even determining when

to serve lunch. Many successful coordinators have found difficulties transitioning to these new

tasks.

Case 4 - Romeo Crennel and Charlie Weis

Crennel and Weis had successful careers as assistant coaches and coordinators, each winning

multiple Super Bowls. Crennel served as the defensive coordinator of the Cleveland Browns in

2000 and then the New England Patriots from 2001 to 2004. In 2005, he was named Head

Coach of the Cleveland Browns, where he served until 2008. He also spent 2012 as Head Coach

of the Kansas City Chiefs. During his years as a head coach, Crennel compiled a 32-63 record.

Weis served as the offensive coordinator for the New York Jets from 1997 to 1999 and the New

England Patriots from 2000 to 2004. In 2004, Weis was named the Head Coach of the

University of Notre Dame, where he stayed until 2009. He also served as Head Coach of the

University of Kansas from 2012 to 2014. During his head coaching career, he compiled a 41-

49 record.

Even jobs with the same title and presumably the same skill set can be markedly different

at different levels. In the college ranks, one significant responsibility of the head coach is

recruiting the best players from across the country and sometimes the world. The best college

coaches can lure the finest players to their program year after year, which is at least one reason the

same schools consistently dominate their sport. Coaches in less established programs may succeed

by finding players not recruited by the top schools and “coaching them up” to their full potential.

Also, the ability to manage players differs in the college ranks from the pros. Head coaches can

discipline players in ways not available to professional coaches in college. For example, college

coaches may be able to pull a student’s athletic scholarship and remove them from the team.

On the other hand, professional sports are bound by a collective bargaining agreement,

which limits the type of discipline a coach can impose on a player. Age differences also make the

handling of players different. What works on an 18-year-old fresh out of high school does not

necessarily work on a 30-year-old man. As a result, numerous highly successful college coaches

have had little or no success transitioning to the professional ranks.

Case 5 – Lou Holtz, Nick Saban and Urban Meyer

Holtz, Saban and Meyer all had Hall of Fame coaching careers in the college ranks, with Holtz

winning one national championship with Notre Dame, Saban winning a total of seven at LSU

and Alabama, and Meyer winning three at Florida and Ohio State combined. However, none

had much success at the professional level. Both Holtz and Saban returned to college ranks after

JABE 64

less than stellar success at the professional level, while Meyer was fired after 13 games in his

first NFL season.

The difficulty in transitioning from coaching in college to the professional ranks may seem

obvious, with the greater level of competition, but moving from coaching at the NFL level to the

college ranks can be just as tricky.

Case 6 – Lovey Smith

Smith had a successful career coaching in the NFL, winning the Associated Press NFL Coach

of the Year award in 2005 and leading the Chicago Bears to a Super Bowl appearance in 2006.

During his years with the Bears, Smith compiled a respectable 81- 63 record. After an

unsuccessful stint as the Tampa Bay Buccaneers head coach, Smith was hired as the head coach

at the University of Illinois. There, he compiled a dismal 17-39 record, getting fired after the

seventh game of his fifth season.

Mentorship

Working for the proper organization is at least one crucial aspect in determining an

employee’s success. Good organizations try to hire the right people and then provide adequate

training and mentorship to increase the probability of the employee’s success. A good mentor can

take new employees and put them on the correct path by placing them in positions that utilize their

strengths and helping them improve on their weaknesses. He may challenge an individual to take

on new assignments the person appears prepared to handle while also keeping that person from

situations for which he is not yet ready. This can be critical to putting someone on a successful

career path in the business world. Although this can be difficult or impossible for students to

observe until they enter the workforce, it is easy to follow in professional football. Consider the

quarterback of a team whose success on the field is probably the easiest to observe, even for a

casual sports fan.

Case 7 – Tom Brady

Brady, the most successful and arguably the greatest quarterback in pro football history, was a

sixth-round draft pick of the New England Patriots out of the University of Michigan. Brady

would win a record seven Super Bowls during his storied career. In his second year, Brady was

provided the opportunity to play due to an injury to All-Pro quarterback Drew Bledsoe. Brady

would lead the team to its first Super Bowl victory. Brady had the good fortune of being drafted

by a good team and having a coaching staff that put him in a position to succeed by using a

system that fit his skill set and only asking him to do what he, as a young, relatively

inexperienced player, was capable of doing.

Case 8 - Lamar Jackson

In 2016, Jackson won the Heisman Trophy, awarded to the best college football player. Jackson,

an exceptionally gifted athlete with question marks about his passing ability, was projected by

most NFL scouts as a wide receiver in the professional ranks. However, in 2018, the Baltimore

JABE 65

Ravens moved up in the draft to take Jackson with the 32

and final pick in the first round.

Head Coach John Harbaugh recognized Jackson’s unique abilities. Rather than try to fit him

into the Ravens’ traditional offense, the team restructured the offense to take advantage of

Jackson’s unique skill set. Jackson would start 7 games at quarterback in his rookie season due

to an injury to starter Joe Flacco, and the team would win six of those seven games to make the

playoffs. In 2019, the Ravens named Jackson their starter, and with a restructured offense, he

would be the unanimous choice for MVP of the league, leading them to a 14-2 record. In 2023,

Jackson would again be the MVP of the league.

In other cases, players could realize their potential only once their mentoring situations changed

through a change in the coaching staff. Consider the following examples.

Case 9 – Alex Smith and Rich Gannon

In 2005, Smith was the overall number-one pick by the San Francisco 49ers and would struggle

for the first six years of his career under several different head coaches and offensive

coordinators. Then, in 2011, Jim Harbaugh was named the head coach, changing the trajectory

of Smith’s career. Before the 2011 season, Smith completed an average of 55.56% (a dismal

percentage for a starting quarterback) of his passes, threw a touchdown pass on 2.82% of his

passes, and was intercepted on 3.7% of his pass attempts. However, from 2011 on, Smith

improved significantly in all categories, completing 64.98% of his passes, increasing his

touchdown pass rate to 4.22% of his pass attempts, and lowering his interception percentage to

1.46 per attempt.

Gannon was a journeyman quarterback playing for three teams with little success when the

Oakland Raiders acquired him in 1999 at the age of 34. Again, like Smith, the move to Oakland

completely changed the narrative on Gannon. His completion percentage improved from

54.57% to 61.60%, his touchdown rate increased from 2.82% to 4.48% per attempt, while his

interception percentage decreased from 3.84 to 2.00 per attempt. After the move to Oakland,

Gannon would be a two-time first-team all-pro selection and the NFL’s MVP in 2002.

These are success stories of athletes playing for good organizations and coaches who knew how

to maximize their talents. It’s easy to attribute a player’s success to being in a good organization

with quality coaching. However, when a player does not reach what experts believe to be his full

potential, it’s not clear if the player lacked work ethic and determination or if the situation he was

placed in is to blame. Consider the following examples of highly regarded players who had little

success in the league.

Case 10 – David Carr and Tim Couch

Both overall number one draft picks, Carr and Couch had less than stellar careers likely caused

by the organizations that drafted them. Carr was selected by the expansion Houston Texans in

2002 and Couch by the Cleveland Browns when they returned to the league as an expansion

team in 1999. Carr spent the first five years of his career behind a terrible offensive line and

was sacked 249 times in 76 games (3.27/game) with Houston. Compare that to Hall of Famer

JABE 66

Dan Marino, who was sacked 270 times in his 242 games (1.12/game) with the Miami Dolphins.

Carr would play another five years serving as a backup. Couch was sacked 166 times in his 62

games (2.68/game) and was out of the league after five years.

Mentorship matters not only in the development of players, but also in the development of

assistant coaches. A head coach’s mentorship legacy can be seen in the success of assistants who

became head coaches, referred to as a head coach’s “coaching tree.” Unfortunately, some of the

greatest head coaches in history failed to adequately prepare assistants for head coaching positions.

Case 11 – Vince Lombardi, George Halas and Bill Belichick

Lombardi and Halas were two legendary coaches (the Superbowl Trophy is named for

Lombardi, the NFC Championship Trophy, for Halas) in the NFL. Yet none mentored assistants

who would go on to succeed as head coaches. Belichick, the most successful coach in NFL

history, has seen several of his assistants go on to head coaching positions, but to date, none

have achieved more than a modest amount of success in the NFL. Several, including Josh

McDaniels, Matt Patricia and Joe Judge, would return to the Patriots to work as assistant coaches

under Belichick [see Rozum, 2012].

Case 12 – Mike Holmgren and Sid Gillman

Holmgren and Gillman both had success as head coaches. Holmgren would lead the Green Bay

Packers to a Super Bowl victory and the Seattle Seahawks to a Super Bowl appearance. Gillman

would be inducted into the college and pro football Halls of Fame. Holmgren assistants Andy

Reid and John Gruden would go on to win Super Bowls as head coaches and several of Reid’s

and Gruden’s assistants would also go on to win Super Bowls. Gillman assistants have won

five Super Bowls, with three being inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame.

Teamwork

In the same way players’ career paths can be shaped by the teams and coaches for whom

they play, so too can the legacies of coaches. Winning championships is challenging, and good

coaching can take mediocre players only so far. To win titles, coaches need at least some great

players.

Case 13 - Bill Belichick, Greg Popovich and Joe Torre

Bill Belichick, Greg Popovich, and Joe Torre won numerous championships in their Hall of

Fame careers.

Belichick took the New England Patriots to nine Super Bowls, winning six with quarterback

Tom Brady. Before Brady joined the Patriots, Belichick only had a modest amount of success

as a head coach. In the four years following Brady’s departure in 2020, the Patriots missed the

JABE 67

playoffs twice and were soundly beaten in the first round in 2022. On the other hand, Brady

won a Super Bowl in 2021, his first year with Tampa Bay.

Popovich and the San Antonio Spurs had the good fortune of receiving the number one pick in

the NBA draft in 1997 and selecting Tim Duncan. Duncan, whom many believe is the best

power forward to play the game, led Popovich and the team to five NBA championships. During

the years Popovich had Duncan and other NBA greats Kawhi Leonard, Tony Parker, and Manu

Ginóbili, the team never had a losing record. However, since Duncan’s retirement and the

departures of Leonard, Parker, and Ginóbili, Popovich and the Spurs have failed to win a

championship and have had five successive losing seasons. Popovich’s and the Spurs’ luck may

have changed. In the 2023 NBA Draft Lottery, the Spurs received the number one pick. This

allowed the Spurs to draft Victor Wembanyama, a 7’2” generational talent, whom many believe

is the best draft prospect since LeBron James in 2003.

Joe Torre had a losing record in his first 15 years as manager of the New York Mets, Atlanta

Braves, and St. Louis Cardinals when the New York Yankees hired him in 1996. Teaming up

with an owner willing to spend for quality free agents and future home-grown Hall of Famers

Mariano Rivera and Derek Jeter, Torre won four World Series titles and two more American

League pennants. Following a contract dispute, Torre left the Yankees in 2008 for the Los

Angeles Dodgers, where he failed to attain the same success he had had with the Yankees.

Although the above mini-cases focus on the importance of players in a coach’s success,

successful organizations are made up of many individuals who receive little or no recognition.

Consider the following case.

Case 14 - Steve Pikiel

In 2016, Pikiell was hired as the Head Coach of the Rutgers University Men’s Basketball. Before

his hiring, the team had ten consecutive losing seasons. His success in turning the program

around is partly due to recognizing the importance of everyone in the organization. At the end

of every season, Pikiell spends days calling to thank everyone in the organization, including bus

drivers, caterers, and the pep band [Asbury Park Press, 2023].

Succession Planning

Continuity in an organization requires that it adopt a succession plan. For example, Jack

Welch spent the better part of a decade preparing his successor and considered it the most

important decision he would make at the end of his tenure at GE. However, history likely will tell

that he selected the wrong person. As in business, succession planning is critical to sports

franchises. For example, in football, finding and grooming an heir apparent to an aging

quarterback is vital for a team to remain competitive over a long period.

Case 15 – Green Bay Packers and San Francisco 49ers

For decades, the Green Bay Packers and the San Francisco 49ers competed at the highest level

in the NFL by producing a succession plan for their future Hall of Fame quarterbacks. The 49ers

JABE 68

selected Joe Montana in the 3

round of the 1979 draft. Montana would lead the team to four

Super Bowl victories from 1979 to 1990. In 1987, the 49ers acquired 26-year-old future Hall of

Famer Steve Young from the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Young would sit on the bench for four

years before getting the opportunity to play in 1991 due to an injury to Montana. Four years

later, Young would lead the team to a Super Bowl victory in 1995, throwing a record six

touchdown passes. Young would retire after the 1999 season, in which he played a limited

number of games. The Montana/Young era gave the 49ers stability and exceptional play at the

quarterback position for two decades.

The Green Bay Packers had even greater success, acquiring future Hall of Famer Brett Favre

from the Atlanta Falcons in 1992. In 2005, the Packers drafted future Hall of Famer Aaron

Rodgers in the first round as the heir apparent to Favre. Rodgers sat on the bench for three years

before replacing Favre in 2007, thus giving the Packers more than 30 years of stability at the

quarterback position. Favre would lead the team to a Super Bowl victory in 1997, while Rodgers

would bring them a championship in 2011.

Drafting an heir apparent is not without risks. In an attempt to continue the legacy of Favre and

Rodgers, the Packers moved up in the draft in 2020 to take quarterback Jordan Love as the

replacement for the 37-year-old Rodgers. This alienated Rodgers, who thought the team could

have improved their chances of winning by filling weaknesses on the roster. Rodgers would be

the MVP in the league in the two seasons following the drafting of Love, but the team failed to

realize its goal of winning a championship.

Were the Packers and the 49ers lucky, or did they recognize the need to search for a suitable

successor to their future Hall of Famers and invest resources in preparing them to take over?

Other teams were less successful in identifying a successor to their star quarterbacks.

Unfortunately, this left the teams struggling for decades without someone to lead the team.

Consider the following examples.

Case 16 – Buffalo Bills, Denver Broncos, and Miami Dolphins

The year 1983 may have produced the most extraordinary draft class in NFL history, with eight

players inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Five quarterbacks would be selected in the

first round, with three producing Hall of Fame careers. John Elway was selected first in the

draft by the Baltimore Colts, but because of his desire to play elsewhere, was quickly traded to

the Denver Broncos. Elway would lead the Broncos to five Super Bowl appearances, winning

in the final two years of his career. Jim Kelly would be selected by the Buffalo Bills with the

pick in the draft, leading the team to four consecutive Super Bowl appearances from 1991

to 1994. Dan Marino would be the 27

pick and the final quarterback taken in the first round.

Marino would take the Dolphins to the Super Bowl in his second year in the league and hold all

the career passing records at retirement.

JABE 69

None of these three teams succeeded in identifying and mentoring a long-term replacement for

their future Hall of Famers. As of this writing, the Dolphins have not identified a “franchise”

quarterback since Marino’s retirement in 1999. The Bills spent more than two decades searching

for a quarterback to lead their team and may have found him in 2018, 22 years after Kelly retired.

The Denver Broncos had more luck than the Bills and Dolphins when they signed 36-year-old

Peyton Manning after the Indianapolis Colts released him, some 16 years after Elway retired.

Manning would play for the Broncos for four years and have three exceptional seasons, setting

the single-season touchdown passing mark and leading them to two Super Bowl appearances

and one victory.

The stability of an NFL team requires hiring the right head coach. Different from business,

where a CEO may groom a successor, highly touted assistant coaches are usually lured away by

other teams for head coaching jobs. This makes it critical for a team to find the correct person and

to have the patience to allow him to succeed.

Case 17 - Pittsburgh Steelers

No team in professional sports has had greater success finding head coaches than the Pittsburgh

Steelers. For more than 50 years, the Steelers have had only three head coaches. In 1969, the

Steelers hired 37-year-old Chuck Noll. Noll would begin his head coaching career with three

losing seasons before turning the team around and leading them to four Super Bowl victories in

the seventies. Noll coached for 23 years and when he retired in 1991, the Steelers replaced him

with 35-year-old Bill Cowher, who led the team to eight division titles, two AFC Conference

championships and one Super Bowl victory in 15 years. Upon Cowher’s retirement following

the 2006 season, the Steelers hired 35-year-old Mike Tomlin. Tomlin, the current head coach

of the team, has led the team to two Super Bowls, winning one and in his first 17 years, never

had a losing season.

Contrast this with several less successful teams, such as the Detroit Lions, Miami Dolphins,

Buffalo Bills, Cleveland Browns and Oakland (now Las Vegas) Raiders. All of them have had

more than double-digit head coaches since 2000.

Contingency Planning

Organizations also need to be prepared for every possible contingency. For example,

injuries are inevitable in football, and losing a starting quarterback can derail a potential

championship season. Therefore, teams must find a competent backup quarterback and prepare

him to take over the starting job should the need arise.

Case 18 - The 1991 Philadelphia Eagles

In 1991, the Philadelphia Eagles were one of the teams considered likely to compete for a

championship until starting quarterback Randall Cunningham was injured in the first game. The

loss of Cunningham left them finishing third in their division, albeit with a respectable 10-win

season.

JABE 70

Finding a suitable backup quarterback can be extremely difficult. Players who can perform

at a high-level week in and week out tend to be starters. Backups tend to be rookies and other

players with limited experience, older players past their prime and players who lack the

consistency to be everyday starters. However, there have been some cases of teams who have

ridden a backup to a championship. For example, there is the previously mentioned case of Tom

Brady and the following two cases.

Case 19 - The 1999 St. Louis Rams and the 2017 Philadelphia Eagles

The 1999 St. Louis Rams were a team with championship aspirations that were not derailed

when starting quarterback Trent Green was injured in the first game. Instead, his backup, future

Hall of Famer Kurt Warner, stepped in to have a historically great season and lead the team to a

Super Bowl win. Warner, an undrafted journeyman and the topic of the movie American

Underdog: The Kurt Warner Story, played in Europe and the Arena Football League, was

undoubtedly not identified as a future star. However, Warner’s success was likely a combination

of his talent, determination and a coaching staff that invested time in preparing him should he

ever be needed.

Perhaps a better example of contingency planning is the 2017 Philadelphia Eagles. The Eagles

had second-year quarterback Carson Wentz, the overall number two pick in the draft the

previous year as their starter. However, recognizing the importance of a competent backup, the

Eagles invested significant money in Nick Foles, a former Eagle who had previously been a

starter. As a result, when Wentz was injured late in the season, Foles stepped in and led the

team to their first Super Bowl victory.

INCORPORATING THE CONCEPTS INTO THE CLASSROOM

One of the significant advantages of using sports to illustrate business concepts is that

sports seasons run for finite periods, allowing instructors to evaluate decisions made by teams

during that season. In addition, each season brings fresh new examples that can be incorporated

into the classroom. There are numerous ways that an instructor can incorporate these concepts

into the classroom. Professors who are sports fans might bring recent decisions made by sports

teams either on the field or in human resource decisions to the classroom for discussion. Those

instructors who are not sports fans might ask students to keep track of game day and human

resource decisions. The issues faced by teams can be used to motivate business topics via some

of the following questions.

Questions:

1. The National Football League has tried to improve minority hiring for head coaching and

top front-office positions through the Rooney Rule. How has the Rooney Rule Changed?

Has the NFL been successful? How does the percentage of leadership positions in the NFL

compare to corporate America? Students can use Bloomberg or other sources to determine

the number of women and minorities employed by a firm.

JABE 71

In 2024, the NFL had six Black head coaches and three other minority head

coaches, or 28.1% of all head coaches. [see NFL Reaches “Major Milestone” With

Record 9 Minority Head Coaches in Place for the 2024 Season, n.d.]. It should be

noted that these percentages change regularly because of the small number of NFL

head coaches and the constant turnover of coaches. In 2023, the NFL had three

Black head coaches and three other minority head coaches, or 18.8%. Only time

will tell if this jump in the percentage of minority head coaches is the beginning of

a trend or an aberration from the norm. Although the verdict on minority head

coaches is still out, it does appear that the number of women employed in prominent

positions in the NFL is on the rise. From 2020 to 2024, the number of women

working in full-time coaching or football operations roles has increased from 92 to

223, a 141% increase. [see NFL’s look changing as more women move into

prominent roles at teams across the league, 2023]. Compared to Corporate

America, it appears the NFL is doing better at hiring minority head coaches, with

only 1.6% of Fortune 500 companies being Black CEOs. Women fared better in

Corporate America, holding slightly more than 10% of CEO positions.

2. In Case 17, we discussed the Pittsburgh Steelers’ success in hiring head coaches. Why do

you think they have successfully found and retained head coaches? What can companies

learn from the Steelers?

There are several lessons businesses can learn from the Steelers. First is patience.

When the Steelers hired Chuck Noll in 1969 to be their head coach, the team had

not had a winning record in seven seasons. In his first three seasons as Head Coach,

Noll finished with losing seasons, winning only 12 games in total. The organization

had the patience to allow Noll to build in winning culture. As a result, the Steelers

were rewarded with back-to-back Super Bowl victories in 1974 and 1975 and again

in 1978 and 1979.

In 2007, the Steelers were searching for a new head coach after the resignation of

Bill Cowher. Russ Grimm, a coach with the Steelers, had been widely reported as

the next head coach. [steelernation.com, 2022]. However, during the interview

process, the Steelers met with Mike Tomlin, the defensive coordinator of the

Minnesota Vikings. Many viewed this as a formality to comply with the Rooney

Rule, which required interviewing a minority candidate. The ownership of the

Steelers viewed Tomlin’s interview not as a means of complying with a rule named

for their owner but as a part of an ongoing search. In the end, the open-mindedness

of the Steelers’ ownership to view every interviewee as a genuine candidate for the

position rewarded them with a head coach who as of this writing has taken the team

to two Super Bowls, winning one, and has never had a losing season.

JABE 72

3. Much of the New England Patriots’ success comes from quarterback Tom Brady accepting

less money to allow the Patriots to sign other quality players. What lessons can companies

and CEOs learn from Brady?

Finding and retaining good employees is one crucial factor in a firm’s success.

Corporations understand that employee turnover can be costly, and they may be

able to reduce this turnover by providing a more equitable pay structure to

employees. CEOs and Boards of Directors should recognize what Brady

understood: that his and the organization's success required many people and that

taking too much of the pie would hinder the team from acquiring and keeping good

players. Companies might use the Brady approach by reducing compensation at

the organization's top and increasing compensation for the rank-and-file workers.

Does this approach improve employee retention? Cascio (2006) compares wages,

benefits, and employee turnover at Costco with rival Sam’s Club from a New York

Times report. In the report, Costco paid $17/hour compared to around $10/hour at

Sam’s Club. In addition, over 80 percent of Costco employees are covered by

health benefits compared to less than 50 percent of Sam’s Club employees. The

more generous benefits have benefited Costco with an unusually low turnover rate

of 17 percent compared to Sam’s Club’s 44 percent. Cascio (2006) estimates the

annual cost of churn per employee to be $3,628 for Costco and $5,274 for Walmart.

Do these savings benefit shareholders and executives, who may receive

compensation based on stock performance metrics? According to Pope (2024),

Walmart trades at 25 times estimated 2024 earnings, whereas Costco trades at 46

times estimated earnings. Although many factors may impact the differences in

multiples, it’s possible that Costco’s strong employee retention policy relative to

Walmart’s may be one of those factors.

4. In Case 12, we discussed two head coaches who have successfully groomed assistants for

head coaching jobs. Are there CEOs or companies with a strong record of producing CEOs

and top executives for other companies? [Botelho and Kos, 2020]

Irene Rosenfeld of Mondelez is one executive who had great success mentoring

those individuals she supervised over a 36-year career as an executive in the food

industry. At the time of her retirement in 2017, she had mentored 13 future CEOs,

including Bob Gamgort of Keurig Green Mountain, Tom Redding of Lending Tree,

Tony Verdon of Kraft, Denise Morrison of Campbell Soup, and Michele Buck of

Hershey.

General Electric and its former CEO, Jack Welch, had a strong record of producing

CEOs who would lead other companies. As of 2001, at least 16 of Welch’s

underlings led publicly traded U.S. companies, including Lawrence Johnston of

Albertson’s Inc. and James McNerney of 3M.

5. The 1999 St. Louis Rams and the 2017 Philadelphia Eagles won Super Bowls with backup

quarterbacks. What lessons can corporate America take from these teams?

JABE 73

Contingency planning is critical to maintaining stability in a firm when the founder

or CEO passes away unexpectedly. Sales can decrease dramatically, and jobs can

be lost (see Business News Daily, 2023)

Unlike companies that lacked a contingency plan, Steve Jobs of Apple identified a

person who could lead the company in his absence. When Jobs stepped away from

Apple in 2009 for pancreatic cancer treatments, Cook stepped in as CEO. After

Jobs resigned as CEO, Cook was permanently appointed CEO shortly before his

death, and the company has continued to thrive under his leadership.

6. Throughout history, we have seen numerous successful assistant coaches who failed as

head coaches. Why did so many of these assistants fail? What can companies learn from

this?

One way firms can avoid the Peter Principle pitfall is to place less emphasis on

current job performance when the new position requires greater responsibility and

where current performance is rewarded by relatively strong pay for performance.

Another approach firms can take is to provide adequate training to employees

interested in moving up to management. For example, a hotel looking for

housekeeping staff to be promoted to a managerial position might invest in training

for those interested in using scheduling software and other relevant management

areas. [King, 2023]

7. In Case 9, we presented two examples of quarterbacks who had limited success until they

were traded to a new team or their team hired a new coaching staff. In Case 10, we

presented examples of two quarterbacks who may not have reached their potential due to

the organization where they began their careers. So, what lessons can students take to

manage their careers?

Working for the right organization and boss can make an enormous difference in

an individual’s career path. Good bosses help their employees succeed by putting

them in positions that utilize their strengths and allowing them to grow by giving

them greater responsibilities. They can also assist them by pointing out weaknesses

and helping them to improve.

8. In every organization, some individuals are the faces of the firm. In sports, players and

coaches receive the bulk of the attention. In the academic world, we have found that

administrators always single out the faculty at open houses. In the movie business, the

spotlight is shined on the actors and directors. Who are some of the essential, although

often unrecognized individuals that allow for success in these organizations?

JABE 74

Sports teams require many people working behind the scenes to succeed. Some of

these include individuals handling catering, transportation, facilities, payroll,

season tickets and concessions.

Universities require a variety of employees: admissions officers to recruit students;

financial aid counselors to assist students in paying for college; individuals in

fundraising to award scholarships to students and help build endowments for

additional facilities; IT managers for maintaining computers used in teaching and

research.

In the movie business, hundreds, if not thousands of individuals are responsible for

making a film. Some of these include location managers, special effects people,

stunt people, costume and set design, sound and film editing. These include some

jobs like “best boy” and “gaffer” (head electrician and chief lighting technician)

that many of us have never heard of.

These are just a few examples of questions and possible answers that instructors can use to

stimulate discussion on various management issues. Instructors can use the above questions to see

what answers students propose. They can also encourage students to formulate their own questions

on topics that parallel sports and business.

SUMMARY

Sports provides instructors with numerous examples that can be used to engage students in

many business practices. Sports are unique from other businesses because team strategies and

human resource decisions are played out in a public forum. This allows instructors to provide

current, real-world examples of many practices that are essential to business. Instructors can use

the examples to promote discussion or as written assignments. Examples can be tailored to the

course being taught. In addition, instructors can improve engagement by using local professional

teams and the college’s teams to illustrate key points. Students who are sports fans are likely to

enjoy delving into the practices of sports teams. Whether interested in sports or not, all students

will learn that sports teams are just another type of company that faces the same issues as other

firms, something that several women from non-sports backgrounds learned when they joined the

Philadelphia Eagles [The NFL Team Run by Women—WSJ, 2019]. In addition, students who

know little about sports will broaden their backgrounds, something that may benefit them when

engaging with clients who are fans.

 
JABE 75 
 
 
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HELPING STUDENTS UNDERSTAND POSITIONING, COMPETITIVE

ADVANTAGE, AND KEY SUCCESS FACTORS: AN EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE FOR

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT CLASSES

Jeffrey A. Mello

Hofstra University

Zarb School of Business

Department of Management and Entrepreneurship

318 Leo Guthart Hall

Hempstead, NY 11549-1000

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

While the strategic management course usually employs a variety of active learning techniques,

such as case studies and simulations, which allow students to directly apply course concepts, it is

difficult to utilize students’ actual personal experiences and perspectives, given their lack of real-

world management experience. This exercise allows students to apply the processes they used as

consumers in their decision to enroll at their college or university to gain a heightened

understanding of and appreciation for the higher education industry as well as their own institution,

its positioning in the marketplace, and what drives its success.

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Rationale

Experiential learning pedagogies have become the hallmark of management education.

There is a distinct challenge, however, in utilizing experiential learning strategies in the

undergraduate strategic management course, given the fact that most undergraduate students have

little to no professional full-time work experience and what experience they do have rarely, if ever,

exposes them to strategy. MBA students, unless they are enrolled in an Executive MBA program,

similarly have limited experience relative to the utilization of integrative, cross-functional skills

required for the development and implementation of strategy.

To allow strategic management courses at both the undergraduate and graduate levels to

focus more on application of theory to the development of integrated, holistic strategic decision-

making skills, case studies and simulations have become popular pedagogies. As described below,

both have benefits as well as limitations

Cases

The case study method originated at Harvard Business School in 1912 and remains the

primary teaching method at most business schools, particularly at top-ranked business schools

(Levy, 2015), in both undergraduate and graduate courses in strategic management (David, 2003).

One reason for this is that cases are designed to help students understand the realities of strategic

decision-making as well as provide a substitute for actual work experience (Chang, et. al., 2001).

Cases present selected data and other information about an organization to facilitate the

development of decision-making skills (Bocker, 1987).

Despite the popularity of case study pedagogy, it has been criticized due to the fact that

cases present true-to-life facts and information in a structured, orderly manner, whereas real-world

business problems aren’t encountered with the tidy organization and structure of a case (Levy,

2015). Cases have also been criticized for their lack of ability to excite and engage students;

promote deeper inquiry than the information presented in the case; and inability to present material

that is current and up to date (Bonner et. al., 2018). Indeed, it has been argued that cases can

become completely dated and irrelevant within six months of initial publication or even sooner,

given the volatility of our global economy and the changing global business environment (Mello,

2017).

“Live” cases have been promoted as a means of overcoming some of the limitations of

traditional case studies (Roth & Smith, 2009; Singh & Eischen, 2007). Live cases require students

to study an actual organization in real time by visiting the organization, interviewing key

employees, and collecting primary and secondary data to analyze either a specific, defined,

strategic problem or the entire organization’s strategy. The use of live cases has been growing in

popularity and allows students to develop additional skills, such as communication and consulting

skills, above those associated with regular cases (Mello, 2017). However, the use of live cases

involves a significant amount of additional work on the part of the instructor as well as the

commitment of sponsoring organizations to provide access to both employees and critical data, the

latter of which might be considered highly proprietary.

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Simulations

The use of simulations has been gaining in popularity within the strategic management

discipline as an increasing number of new simulations are being created and marketed each year

as part of a rapidly growing gaming and simulations industry. Simulations have been found to

facilitate both the development of holistic thinking skills and the ability to respond to complex

problems (Senge, 2006). Simulations also provide time compression, whereby a lengthy period

of time can be simulated in seconds, facilitating immediate feedback on decision making (Gibbons

et al., 2022). This can be contrasted to case studies which only consider a ”snapshot” of an

organization at a particular point in time. Hence, simulations allow students to see the

consequences of decisions, allowing them to refine and adjust strategy and decision-making in the

light of such unforeseen consequences, much as real-world executives need to do. Hence,

simulations are more aligned with the real world of dynamic, ongoing strategic decision-making,

which may need to be adjusted to address unexpected and dynamic situations.

Despite their benefits, simulations are far from perfect. Mintzberg (2004) argued that

simulations “only compound the problems created in other courses, by giving the impression that

managing is far more orderly and analytical than it really is” (p. 44). Lean et al. (2006) found a

number of barriers to the use of simulations, including the amount of time required for preparation,

the frequent lack of alignment with course content, limited class time available relative to the

extensive amount of time required to conduct simulations properly, technical and quality issues

with products, and available of funding to purchase varied simulations. In fact, the amount of time

required to effectively use a simulation largely precludes the use of any other type of

accompanying learning strategy in the strategic management course. While the use of simulations

in management education and research on their use has been increasing, there has been no evidence

that management simulations impact either cognitive learning outcomes or the values, skills,

and employability of learners (Hallinger & Wang, 2020).

Making it Relevant

While cases and simulations both have some advantages and remain popular pedagogical

choices for many strategic management faculty, neither provide actual experiences for students

(dos Santos & Gomide, 2013) and are unable to duplicate the complexity associated with real-

time strategic decision-making. It has been suggested that student learning can be enhanced by

studying examples of organizations which are currently in the news rather than traditional

“classic cases” from the past (David, 2003). Current organizational examples allow students to

better understand the actual, in-the-moment realities that challenge decision -makers, particularly

as they try to anticipate and respond to dynamic changes taking place in their external

environments and design a strategy for the future.

It has also been suggested that students can also benefit from studying a company with

which they are familiar as customers. Allowing them to integrate their experiences as consumers,

and to possibly survey peers and family members to learn about their experiences and perceptions,

with strategy recommendations within their strategic analysis can heighten learning outcomes

(Mello, 2017). This is particularly true for both traditional undergraduate students without work

experience, as well as MBA students without management experience, who generally lack the

associated practical knowledge to be able to correctly conduct strategic analysis (Hansen, 2021;

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Lohrke, et al., 2022; Mintzberg, 1990) without an appropriate frame of reference. Employing

students’ personal experience as a customer and the associated analysis of their own “purchase

decision” can provide that frame of reference to facilitate enhanced learning. Hence, the value of

this exercise is that it allows students to directly apply their experience as customers to the strategic

analysis of a real-world organization in real time.

In light of the above, the following experiential exercise has been designed for students

in the strategic management course. This exercise has three distinct learning objectives.

Learning Objectives

After completing this exercise, students will be able to

• understand market opportunities and positioning in the marketplace

• identify the means of attracting and retaining customers

• discern how the means of attracting customers are similar to and different

from the means of retaining customers

Exercise

This exercise has been used successfully at both the undergraduate and graduate levels in

the capstone strategic management course. The process followed is identical for both audiences.

Students are asked to do a strategic analysis of their own academic institution based on

their personal experience and, later, that of their group members, from the perspective of the

organization’s customers. The exercise is completed early in the semester after students have been

exposed to the fundamentals of strategic management, namely, the topics of (sustainable)

competitive advantage, market positioning, industry key success factors (KSFs), SWOT analysis,

and aligning resources and capabilities with strategy.

The exercise involves several distinct steps which sequentially build upon each other.

Step 1 - Individual Written Assignment (approximately 10-15 minutes)

Students are asked to think about and then write down their responses to the following

questions.

• To what colleges did you apply and why did you apply to each of them?

(critical attributes sought by customers)

• What were the most important factors you considered in deciding where to

apply versus where not to apply? (key success factors in industry)

• What made you choose ____ over the other institutions to which you were

accepted? (positioning and competitive advantage)

• Why have you stayed at ____, rather than transfer elsewhere? (critical

customer retention factors)

Step 2 - Team Analysis (approximately 40-50 minutes)

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Students are then placed in teams of 4-5 (or asked to convene with their already-established

team if teams have been formed), share their responses from Step 1 with their teammates, and

complete a three-pronged strategic analysis as described below.

As a team they, first, identify and agree upon

• their institution’s main competitors

• the criteria they used in deciding where to apply

• the extent to which others (parents, guidance counselors, rankings, etc.)

influenced the decision on where to apply

• what factors ultimately influenced their final choice to enroll where they did

• how their institution competes and whether it has a competitive sustainable

advantage

• how their institution actively attempts, if at all, to retain its customers

(students)

• (for undergraduates) whether perspectives of those who transferred in differ

from those who enrolled straight from high school (or whether the perspectives of

traditional students differ from those of adult learners, depending on the makeup of

the class)

Second, the team completes a mapping / two-dimensional positioning of the marketplace

for their institution and its competitors, carefully selecting and identifying appropriate x and y axes

factors which are critical to positioning. The mapping will illustrate the nature of both competition

and untapped opportunities and justification should be provided for the measures utilized on the

axes (see Appendix A for an example of the mapping / positioning devised by one team).

Third, the team makes strategic recommendations to their institution regarding how it can

compete more effectively in its current marketplace (and/or enter new or different markets). These

recommendations can be presented in one of two ways, as outlined below in Step 3.

Step 3 – Presentations or Class Discussion of Team Analyses

Option 1 – Formal Team Presentations to the class (approximately 15-20 minutes each) of

the results of Step 2. This allows students to see the analysis done and recommendations made by

other teams and can be followed by a full class discussion (approximately 30 minutes) of the

various recommendations and strategic factors considered in making these recommendations.

Option 2 – Full class discussion without formal presentations (approximately 30 minutes)

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Debriefing

This is a relatively straightforward exercise in which students are asked to think about their

personal experiences as customers of their institution and frame this customer perspective relative

to strategic management concepts. Student experiences provide a rich basis for the application of

strategic management concepts, especially when comparing what different students perceive to be

their institution’s competitors and strengths as well as how they feel their institution competes and

how effectively it does so. Typically, a spirited, yet friendly, discussion takes place among

students regarding the institution’s strengths and weaknesses as well as opportunities and threats.

At my institution, senior management has shown an interest in learning about these student

perceptions and recommendations to assist them in their own strategic planning.

I also use this as a “warm-up” exercise for students who later in the course will be asked

to complete a more detailed strategic analysis, utilizing a similar framework, of an assigned

organization within an industry in which they hope to be employed upon graduation.

Evidence of Learning

I utilize Option 1 in Step 3 where I have student teams deliver formal PowerPoint

presentations to the class on which I provide feedback (and a grade) relative to their analysis of

the areas noted in Step 2. As noted in the debriefing above, students later complete a comparable

strategic analysis of another organization in real-time and I have found, anecdotally, that the level

of strategic analysis students are able to complete in the second assignment is far more developed

than that they are able to do for their own institution. I have also found that students who have

completed the strategic analysis of the own institution do far better on the strategic analyses of

their later assigned organization than those who were not afforded the opportunity to analyze their

academic institution. Students have commented repeatedly that this “warm-up” exercise in

analyzing their institution, getting feedback on their work, and hearing the analyses done by the

other teams in the class greatly improves their understanding of how to conduct a more thorough

strategic analysis on a real-world organization.

Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Research

True experiential learning has typically been absent from the strategic management

course, largely because the overwhelming majority of students lack the appropriate work

experience and frame of reference which can be applied to strategic decision making. While

simulations and case studies allow for the application of strategy-related course concepts and

models, they both have limitations and don’t allow students the opportunity to draw upon their

own experiences. This exercise allows students, both individually and as part of a team, the

opportunity to apply their own experiences as consumers / customers to heighten their

understanding of strategy relative to their own institution. Students have both enjoyed the

exercise and been able to start to develop critical analytical skills related to strategy which can be

further developed in subsequent assignments in the course.

The exercise has been utilized thus far at the undergraduate level with a relatively racially

and ethnically diverse yet homogenous (graduating seniors who enrolled in college directly from

high school) student population. Future use and application of the exercise could examine

JABE 83

differences in student responses among different groups. For example, within the current sample

of traditional, undergraduate students, do transfer student perceptions and responses differ from

those of “native” students, as noted above? Do international student perceptions and responses

differ from those of domestic students? Do commuting student perceptions and responses differ

from those of resident students? Do student athlete perceptions and responses differ from those

of non-athletes? Such data could be of great value for marketing and enrollment services staff.

The exercise can be used at the graduate / MBA level with similar expected learning

goals and outcomes. Again, the perceptions and responses of students can provide valuable data

points in helping marketing and enrollment services staff better understand and target potential

students. Hence, the exercise has the added value of potentially providing important market

research data to the institution while it simultaneously provides enrolled students with a unique

opportunity to apply their own insights and experiences toward the development of skills related

to strategic management.

 
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Appendix A – Mapping / Positioning of Institution

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